Federalism

Hello students, welcome to today's lesson on Chapter 2 of your Civics textbook, Federalism. I am so happy to be here with you to explore this very important topic. Federalism is not just a concept in your textbook; it is the very foundation on which our vast and diverse democracy functions. So let's begin our journey into understanding how power is shared in our country and why this matters so much for all of us.

So students, let's start by understanding what federalism actually means. You will remember from the previous chapter that we discussed different forms of power-sharing in democracies. One of the major forms is the vertical division of power among different levels of government. This is what we call federalism. Let me explain this with a contrast that the textbook mentions between Belgium and Sri Lanka.

Now, think about Belgium. In Belgium, a very important change happened in 1993. The Constitution of Belgium was amended to reduce the power of the Central Government and give more powers to the regional governments. Now, regional governments existed in Belgium even before this change. They had their roles and powers, but all these powers could be given or taken away by the Central Government. What happened in 1993 was that the regional governments were given constitutional powers that were no longer dependent on the central government. This means their powers were guaranteed by the Constitution itself and could not be simply taken away. This is exactly what we mean when we say a country shifts from a unitary to a federal form of government. On the other hand, students, Sri Lanka continues to be, for all practical purposes, a unitary system where the national government has all the powers. Tamil leaders in Sri Lanka have been demanding that Sri Lanka should become a federal system, which shows that they want more power to be given to the regions.

So, what is federalism? Let me give you a clear definition. Federalism is a system of government in which the power is divided between a central authority and various constituent units of the country. Usually, a federation has two levels of government. One is the government for the entire country that is usually responsible for a few subjects of common national interest. We call this the Central Government or Union Government. The others are governments at the level of provinces or states that look after much of the day-to-day administering of their state. Both these levels of government enjoy their power independent of the other. They cannot boss over each other.

Now students, you might be confused and ask, what do we call the Indian government? Is it Union, Federal or Central? This is a very common question. The Constitution of India uses the term Union of States, but the Indian system is based on federal principles. So we can call it both Union and Federal, though technically the Constitution does not use the word federation. We will understand this better as we go along.

Now, let me tell you something interesting. Though only 25 of the world's 193 countries have federal political systems, their citizens make up 40 per cent of the world's population. Most of the large countries of the world are federations. Can you think of some examples? The United States of America, Canada, Australia, Brazil, and of course, India. These are all federal countries. This tells us that federalism is particularly useful for large and diverse countries like ours.

Now, students, let's understand how federalism is different from a unitary system. Under the unitary system, either there is only one level of government or the sub-units are subordinate to the central government. The central government can pass on orders to the provincial or the local government. But in a federal system, the central government cannot order the state government to do something. The state government has powers of its own for which it is not answerable to the central government. Both these governments are separately answerable to the people. This is a very important distinction.

So, what are the objectives of federalism? The federal system has dual objectives. First, to safeguard and promote unity of the country. Second, to accommodate regional diversity. These two might seem contradictory, but federalism tries to achieve both. Therefore, two aspects are crucial for the institutions and practice of federalism. Governments at different levels should agree to some rules of power-sharing. They should also trust that each would abide by its part of the agreement. An ideal federal system has both aspects: mutual trust and agreement to live together.

Now, students, the exact balance of power between the central and the state government varies from one federation to another. This balance depends mainly on the historical context in which the federation was formed. There are two kinds of routes through which federations have been formed. Let me explain both.

The first route involves independent states coming together on their own to form a bigger unit, so that by pooling sovereignty and retaining identity, they can increase their security. This type of coming together federations include the USA, Switzerland, and Australia. In this first category of federations, all the constituent states usually have equal power and are strong vis-à-vis the federal government. This means that the states have almost the same amount of power as the central government.

The second route is where a large country decides to divide its power between the constituent states and the national government. India, Spain, and Belgium are examples of this kind of holding together federations. In this second category, the Central Government tends to be more powerful vis-à-vis the States. Very often different constituent units of the federation have unequal powers. Some units are granted special powers. This is exactly what happened in India. We will see this in more detail later.

Now, students, let me give you the key features of federalism. These are very important and you should remember them.

The first feature is that there are two or more levels or tiers of government. In India, we have three tiers - the Union Government, the State Governments, and the Local Governments.

The second feature is that different tiers of government govern the same citizens, but each tier has its own jurisdiction in specific matters of legislation, taxation and administration. This means that both the central government and state government govern the same people, but they handle different subjects.

The third feature is that the jurisdictions of the respective levels or tiers of government are specified in the constitution. So the existence and authority of each tier of government is constitutionally guaranteed. This is very important because it means that the constitution protects the powers of both the central and state governments.

The fourth feature is that the fundamental provisions of the constitution cannot be unilaterally changed by one level of government. Such changes require the consent of both the levels of government. This is what makes federalism strong. Neither the central government nor the state governments can change the power-sharing arrangement on their own.

The fifth feature is that courts have the power to interpret the constitution and the powers of different levels of government. The highest court acts as an umpire if disputes arise between different levels of government in the exercise of their respective powers. In India, the Supreme Court plays this role.

The sixth feature is that sources of revenue for each level of government are clearly specified to ensure its financial autonomy. This is crucial because without money, governments cannot function. Both the central and state governments have their own sources of revenue.

Now students, let me pause here and recap what we have learned so far. We learned that federalism is a system where power is divided between a central authority and constituent units like states. We learned about two types of federations - coming together and holding together. We also learned the six key features of federalism. Make sure you remember these features because they will help you understand how Indian federalism works.

Now, let's move to the next important question - What makes India a federal country? We have seen how small countries like Belgium and Sri Lanka face many problems of managing diversity. What about a vast country like India, with so many languages, religions, and regions? What are the power sharing arrangements in our country?

Let's begin with the Constitution. India had emerged as an independent nation after a painful and bloody partition. Soon after Independence, several princely states became a part of the country. The Constitution declared India as a Union of States. Although it did not use the word federation, the Indian Union is based on the principles of federalism.

Now, let's apply the six features of federalism that we just learned to the Indian Constitution. We can see that all these features apply to the provisions of the Indian Constitution.

The Constitution originally provided for a two-tier system of government, the Union Government or what we call the Central Government, representing the Union of India and the State governments. Later, a third tier of federalism was added in the form of Panchayats and Municipalities. So we have three levels of government in India.

As in any federation, these different tiers enjoy separate jurisdiction. The Constitution clearly provided a three-fold distribution of legislative powers between the Union Government and the State Governments. Thus, it contains three lists. This is very important, students. Let me explain each list in detail.

The Union List includes subjects of national importance, such as defence of the country, foreign affairs, banking, communications, and currency. They are included in this list because we need a uniform policy on these matters throughout the country. The Union Government alone can make laws relating to the subjects mentioned in the Union List. For example, only the Central Government can make laws about defence and foreign affairs.

The State List contains subjects of State and local importance, such as police, trade, commerce, agriculture, and irrigation. The State Governments alone can make laws relating to the subjects mentioned in the State List. For example, only the state government can make laws about police and agriculture.

The Concurrent List includes subjects of common interest to both the Union Government as well as the State Governments, such as education, forest, trade unions, marriage, adoption, and succession. Both the Union as well as the State Governments can make laws on the subjects mentioned in this list. However, if their laws conflict with each other, the law made by the Union Government will prevail. This is an important principle.

Now, what about subjects that do not fall in any of the three lists? Or subjects like computer software that came up after the constitution was made? According to our constitution, the Union Government has the power to legislate on these residuary subjects. This means that any subject not mentioned in any of the three lists falls under the jurisdiction of the Union Government.

Now students, we noted above that most federations that are formed by holding together do not give equal power to its constituent units. Thus, all States in the Indian Union do not have identical powers. Some States enjoy a special status. States such as Assam, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, and Mizoram enjoy special powers under certain provisions of the Constitution of India due to their peculiar social and historical circumstances. These special powers are especially enjoyed in relation to the protection of land rights of indigenous peoples, their culture, and also preferential employment in government services. Indians who are not permanent residents of these states cannot buy land or house there. Similar special provisions exist for some other States of India as well.

There are some units of the Indian Union which enjoy very little power. These are areas which are too small to become an independent State but which could not be merged with any of the existing States. These areas, like Chandigarh, or Lakshadweep or the capital city of Delhi, are called Union Territories. These territories do not have the powers of a State. The Central Government has special powers in running these areas.

This sharing of power between the Union Government and the State Governments is basic to the structure of the Constitution. It is not easy to make changes to this power sharing arrangement. The Parliament cannot on its own change this arrangement. Any change to it has to be first passed by both the Houses of Parliament with at least two-thirds majority. Then it has to be ratified by the legislatures of at least half of the total States. This is a very high threshold, which shows how seriously the constitution treats the federal structure.

The judiciary plays an important role in overseeing the implementation of constitutional provisions and procedures. In case of any dispute about the division of powers, the High Courts and the Supreme Court make a decision. The Union and State Governments have the power to raise resources by levying taxes in order to carry on the government and the responsibilities assigned to each of them.

Now students, let me address some questions that might be in your mind. The textbook asks: Pokharan, the place where India conducted its nuclear tests, lies in Rajasthan. Suppose the Government of Rajasthan was opposed to the Central Government's nuclear policy, could it prevent the Government of India from conducting the nuclear tests? The answer is no. Defence and foreign affairs are in the Union List. The Central Government has the sole authority to take decisions on nuclear policy. The state government cannot override the central government on this matter.

Another question: Suppose the Government of Sikkim plans to introduce new textbooks in its schools. But the Union Government does not like the style and content of the new textbooks. In that case, does the state government need to take permission from the Union Government before these textbooks can be launched? The answer is no. Education is in the Concurrent List, which means both the Union and State Governments can make laws on education. However, since the state government is implementing the textbooks in its own state, it does not need permission from the Union Government. The state government has the authority to decide on school curricula within its state.

Another question: Suppose the Chief Ministers of Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, and Orissa have different policies on how their state police should respond to the naxalites. Can the Prime Minister of India intervene and pass an order that all the Chief Ministers will have to obey? The answer is generally no, because police is in the State List. Each state has the power to handle its own law and order. However, in extreme situations, the Central Government can intervene under certain provisions, but normally the state government has the primary responsibility for police and law and order.

Now students, let's move to the next section - How is federalism practiced? Constitutional provisions are necessary for the success of federalism but these are not sufficient. If the federal experiment has succeeded in India, it is not merely because of the clearly laid out constitutional provisions. The real success of federalism in India can be attributed to the nature of democratic politics in our country. This ensured that the spirit of federalism, respect for diversity, and desire for living together became shared ideals in our country. Let's look at some of the major ways in which this happened.

The first major test for Indian federalism was the creation of linguistic states. If you look at the political map of India when it began its journey as a democracy in 1947 and that of 2019, you will be surprised by the extent of the changes. Many old States have vanished and many new States have been created. Areas, boundaries, and names of the States have been changed.

In 1947, the boundaries of several old States of India were changed in order to create new States. This was done to ensure that people who spoke the same language lived in the same State. Some States were created not on the basis of language but to recognise differences based on culture, ethnicity, or geography. These include states like Nagaland, Uttarakhand, and Jharkhand.

Now, some questions for you to think about. Has your village, town, or city remained under the same State since Independence? If not, what was the name of the earlier State? Can you identify names of three States in 1947 that have been changed later? Identify any three States which have been carved out of bigger States. For example, Chhattisgarh was carved out of Madhya Pradesh, Uttarakhand was carved out of Uttar Pradesh, and Jharkhand was carved out of Bihar. Similarly, Telangana was carved out of Andhra Pradesh in 2014.

When the demand for the formation of States on the basis of language was raised, some national leaders feared that it would lead to the disintegration of the country. The Central Government resisted linguistic States for some time. But the experience has shown that the formation of linguistic States has actually made the country more united. It has also made administration easier. This is a very important lesson from Indian federalism.

The second test for Indian federation is the language policy. Our Constitution did not give the status of national language to any one language. Hindi was identified as the official language. But Hindi is the mother tongue of only about 40 per cent of Indians. Therefore, there were many safeguards to protect other languages. Besides Hindi, there are 21 other languages recognised as Scheduled Languages by the Constitution. A candidate in an examination conducted for the Central Government positions may opt to take the examination in any of these languages. States too have their own official languages. Much of the government work takes place in the official language of the concerned State.

Unlike Sri Lanka, the leaders of our country adopted a very cautious attitude in spreading the use of Hindi. According to the Constitution, the use of English for official purposes was to stop in 1965. However, many non-Hindi speaking States demanded that the use of English continue. In Tamil Nadu, this movement took a violent form. The Central Government responded by agreeing to continue the use of English along with Hindi for official purposes. Many critics think that this solution favoured the English-speaking elite. Promotion of Hindi continues to be the official policy of the Government of India. Promotion does not mean that the Central Government can impose Hindi on States where people speak a different language. The flexibility shown by Indian political leaders helped our country avoid the kind of situation that Sri Lanka finds itself in. This is a great example of how accommodation and flexibility have strengthened Indian federalism.

Now, let's talk about Centre-State relations. Restructuring the Centre-State relations is one more way in which federalism has been strengthened in practice. How the constitutional arrangements for sharing power work in reality depends to a large extent on how the ruling parties and leaders follow these arrangements.

For a long time, the same party ruled both at the Centre and in most of the States. This meant that the State Governments did not exercise their rights as autonomous federal units. As and when the ruling party at the State level was different, the parties that ruled at the Centre tried to undermine the power of the States. In those days, the Central Government would often misuse the Constitution to dismiss the State Governments that were controlled by rival parties. This undermined the spirit of federalism.

All this changed significantly after 1990. This period saw the rise of regional political parties in many States of the country. This was also the beginning of the era of coalition governments at the Centre. Since no single party got a clear majority in the Lok Sabha, the major national parties had to enter into an alliance with many parties including several regional parties to form a government at the Centre.

This led to a new culture of power sharing and respect for the autonomy of State Governments. Thus, federal power sharing is more effective today than it was in the early years after the Constitution came into force. This trend was supported by a major judgement of the Supreme Court that made it difficult for the Central Government to dismiss state governments in an arbitrary manner.

Now students, let's discuss the linguistic diversity of India. How many languages do we have in India? The answer depends on how one counts it. The latest information that we have is from the Census of India held in 2011. This census recorded more than 1300 distinct languages which people mentioned as their mother tongues. These languages were grouped together under some major languages. For example, languages like Bhojpuri, Magadhi, Bundelkhandi, Chhattisgarhi, Rajasthani, and many others were grouped together under Hindi. Even after this grouping, the Census found 121 major languages. Of these, 22 languages are now included in the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution and are therefore called Scheduled Languages. Others are called non-Scheduled Languages. In terms of languages, India is perhaps the most diverse country in the world.

A look at the table in your textbook makes it clear that no one language is the mother tongue of the majority of our population. The largest language, Hindi, is the mother tongue of only about 44 per cent Indians. If we add to that all those who knew Hindi as their second or third language, the total number was still less than 50 per cent in 2011. As for English, only 0.02 per cent Indians recorded it as their mother tongue. Another 11 per cent knew it as a second or third language.

Now students, let's move to the important topic of Decentralisation in India. We noted above that federal governments have two or more tiers of governments. We have so far discussed the two-tiers of government in our country. But a vast country like India cannot be run only through these two-tiers. States in India are as large as independent countries of Europe. In terms of population, Uttar Pradesh is bigger than Russia, Maharashtra is about as big as Germany. Many of these States are internally very diverse. There is thus a need for power sharing within these States. Federal power sharing in India needs another tier of government, below that of the State governments. This is the rationale for decentralisation of power. Thus, resulted a third-tier of government, called local government.

When power is taken away from Central and State governments and given to local government, it is called decentralisation. The basic idea behind decentralisation is that there are a large number of problems and issues which are best settled at the local level. People have better knowledge of problems in their localities. They also have better ideas on where to spend money and how to manage things more efficiently. Besides, at the local level it is possible for the people to directly participate in decision making. This helps to inculcate a habit of democratic participation. Local government is the best way to realise one important principle of democracy, namely local self-government.

The need for decentralisation was recognised in our Constitution. Since then, there have been several attempts to decentralise power to the level of villages and towns. Panchayats in villages and municipalities in urban areas were set up in all the States. But these were directly under the control of state governments. Elections to these local governments were not held regularly. Local governments did not have any powers or resources of their own. Thus, there was very little decentralisation in effective terms.

A major step towards decentralisation was taken in 1992. The Constitution was amended to make the third-tier of democracy more powerful and effective. Now it is constitutionally mandatory to hold regular elections to local government bodies. Seats are reserved in the elected bodies and the executive heads of these institutions for the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and Other Backward Classes. At least one-third of all positions are reserved for women. An independent institution called the State Election Commission has been created in each State to conduct panchayat and municipal elections. The State governments are required to share some powers and revenue with local government bodies. The nature of sharing varies from State to State.

Now, let me explain the structure of rural local government. Rural local government is popularly known by the name Panchayati Raj. Each village, or a group of villages in some States, has a gram panchayat. This is a council consisting of several ward members, often called panch, and a president or sarpanch. They are directly elected by all the adult population living in that ward or village. It is the decision-making body for the entire village. The panchayat works under the overall supervision of the gram sabha. All the voters in the village are its members. It has to meet at least twice or thrice in a year to approve the annual budget of the gram panchayat and to review the performance of the gram panchayat.

The local government structure goes right up to the district level. A few gram panchayats are grouped together to form what is usually called a panchayat samiti or block or mandal. The members of this representative body are elected by all the panchayat members in that area. All the panchayat samitis or mandals in a district together constitute the zilla parishad. Most members of the zilla parishad are elected. Members of the Lok Sabha and MLAs of that district and some other officials of other district level bodies are also its members. Zilla parishad chairperson is the political head of the zilla parishad.

Similarly, local government bodies exist for urban areas as well. Municipalities are set up in towns. Big cities are constituted into municipal corporations. Both municipalities and municipal corporations are controlled by elected bodies consisting of people's representatives. Municipal chairperson is the political head of the municipality. In a municipal corporation, such an officer is called the mayor.

Now students, let me tell you about an interesting experiment in Brazil. A city called Porto Alegre in Brazil has carried out an extraordinary experiment in combining decentralisation with participative democracy. The city has set up a parallel organisation operating alongside the municipal council, enabling local inhabitants to take real decisions for their city. The nearly 13 lakh people in this city get to participate in making the budget for their own city. The city is divided into many sectors or what we call wards. Each sector has a meeting, like that of the gram sabha, in which anyone living in that area can participate. There are some meetings to discuss issues that affect the entire city. Any citizen of the city can participate in those meetings. The budget of the city is discussed in these meetings. The proposals are put to the municipality that takes a final decision about it. About 20,000 people participate in this decision making exercise every year. This method has ensured that the money cannot be spent only for the benefit of the colonies where rich people live. Buses now run to the poor colonies and builders cannot evict slum-dwellers without resettling them.

In our own country, a similar experiment has taken place in some areas in Kerala. Ordinary people have participated in making a plan for the development of their locality.

This new system of local government is the largest experiment in democracy conducted anywhere in the world. There are now about 36 lakh elected representatives in the panchayats and municipalities all over the country. This number is bigger than the population of many countries in the world. Constitutional status for local government has helped to deepen democracy in our country. It has also increased women's representation and voice in our democracy. At the same time, there are many difficulties. While elections are held regularly and enthusiastically, gram sabhas are not held regularly. Most state governments have not transferred significant powers to the local governments. Nor have they given adequate resources. We are thus still a long way from realising the ideal of self-government.

Now students, let's turn to the exercises at the end of the chapter. I will solve each question one by one so that you understand how to approach them.

Exercise 1: Locate the following States on a blank outline political map of India: Manipur, Sikkim, Chhattisgarh and Goa.

For this exercise, you need to locate these states on a map. Manipur is located in the northeastern part of India, bordering Myanmar. Sikkim is also in the northeastern region, sandwiched between Nepal, Bhutan, and Tibet. Chhattisgarh is a central Indian state, carved out of Madhya Pradesh in the year 2000. Goa is a small coastal state on the western coast of India, formerly part of Maharashtra. On your map, shade these states appropriately.

Exercise 2: Identify and shade three federal countries other than India on a blank outline political map of the world.

Some examples of federal countries are the United States of America, Canada, Brazil, Australia, Germany, and Switzerland. You can choose any three of these and shade them on your world map.

Exercise 3: Point out one feature in the practice of federalism in India that is similar to and one feature that is different from that of Belgium.

Similar feature: Both India and Belgium have a federal system where power is divided between the central government and state or regional governments. Both have a constitution that defines this division of powers.

Different feature: India is a holding together federation where a large country divided its power, while Belgium is a coming together federation where independent states came together to form a federation. Also, in India, the central government is more powerful vis-à-vis the states, while in Belgium, the regions have significant powers. Additionally, India has a three-tier system including local governments, while Belgium does not have the same level of decentralisation.

Exercise 4: What is the main difference between a federal form of government and a unitary one? Explain with an example.

The main difference is that in a federal system, power is divided between the central government and state governments, and both have independent powers that cannot be unilaterally changed. In a unitary system, either there is only one level of government, or the sub-units are subordinate to the central government. For example, in India, states have their own powers regarding law and order, education, and agriculture, and the central government cannot override these on its own. But in Sri Lanka, which is a unitary system, the national government has all the powers and can pass orders to provincial or local governments.

Exercise 5: State any two differences between the local government before and after the Constitutional amendment in 1992.

Before 1992, elections to local governments were not held regularly, and local governments did not have any constitutional status. After 1992, it became constitutionally mandatory to hold regular elections to local government bodies. Before 1992, there was no reservation for women and backward classes in local governments. After 1992, seats are reserved for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, Other Backward Classes, and at least one-third of all positions are reserved for women. Before 1992, there was no independent State Election Commission. After 1992, an independent institution called the State Election Commission was created in each State to conduct panchayat and municipal elections.

Exercise 6: Fill in the blanks.

Since the United States is a coming together type of federation, all the constituent States have equal powers and States are strong vis-à-vis the federal government. But India is a holding together type of federation and some States have more power than others. In India, the Central government has more powers.

Exercise 7: Here are three reactions to the language policy followed in India. Give an argument and an example to support any of these positions.

Sangeeta: The policy of accommodation has strengthened national unity. This is correct. By not imposing any one language as the national language and by allowing states to use their own official languages, India has accommodated linguistic diversity. For example, despite Hindi being the official language, states like Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, and Karnataka use their respective state languages for official work. This has prevented conflicts and helped maintain unity.

Arman: Language-based States have divided us by making everyone conscious of their language. This is not entirely correct. While language-based states do make people conscious of their language, this has actually helped strengthen the country. For example, being a Kannadiga or a Tamilian and being Indian are not contradictory. People can identify with their state language and still be proud Indians.

Harish: This policy has only helped to consolidate the dominance of English over all other languages. This is partially correct but one-sided. While English continues to be important for official purposes and in higher education, the policy has also protected many regional languages. Many state languages are now taught in schools and used in government work.

Exercise 8: The distinguishing feature of a federal government is:

The correct answer is (d) Governmental power is divided between different levels of government. This is the key feature that distinguishes federalism from other forms of government.

Exercise 9: A few subjects in various Lists of the Indian Constitution are given here. Group them under the Union, State and Concurrent Lists.

Let me group these for you:

Union List: Defence, Banking, Communications State List: Police, Agriculture, Trade Concurrent List: Education, Forests, Marriages

Exercise 10: Examine the following pairs that give the level of government in India and the powers of the government at that level to make laws on the subjects mentioned against each. Which of the following pairs is not correctly matched?

The correct answer is (d) Local governments - Residuary powers. Local governments do not have residuary powers. Residuary powers belong to the Union Government. The other three pairs are correctly matched.

Exercise 11: Match List I with List II.

The correct answer is (c) A, C, D, B.

Let me explain: Union of India is associated with the Prime Minister, so 1 matches with A. State is associated with the Governor, so 2 matches with C. Municipal Corporation is associated with the Mayor, so 3 matches with D. Gram Panchayat is associated with the Sarpanch, so 4 matches with B.

Exercise 12: Consider the following statements and identify which are correct.

Statement A says: In a federation, the powers of the federal and provincial governments are clearly demarcated. This is true - this is a key feature of federalism.

Statement B says: India is a federation because the powers of the Union and State Governments are specified in the Constitution and they have exclusive jurisdiction on their respective subjects. This is true - India is indeed a federation because the constitution clearly specifies the powers of both levels of government.

Statement C says: Sri Lanka is a federation because the country is divided into provinces. This is false - Sri Lanka is a unitary system, not a federation, despite having provinces.

Statement D says: India is no longer a federation because some powers of the States have been devolved to the local government bodies. This is false - India continues to be a federal country. The addition of local governments as a third tier does not make India any less federal.

So the correct statements are A and B only. The answer is (c) A and B only.

Now students, let me also address the in-text questions and activities from the chapter.

The textbook mentions some Nepalese citizens discussing federalism. Let me give you my response to each of these:

Khag Raj says: I don't like federalism. It would lead to reservation of seats for different caste groups as in India. This is a wrong understanding. Federalism is about division of power between different levels of government, not about reservation. Reservation is a separate policy aimed at ensuring representation of marginalized communities.

Sarita says: Ours is not a very big country. We don't need federalism. This is also a wrong understanding. Federalism is not just for big countries. It is about accommodating diversity and giving autonomy to regions. Even small countries can benefit from federalism if they have diverse populations.

Babu Lal says: I am hopeful that the Terai areas will get more autonomy if they get their own state government. This reflects a correct understanding of federalism. Federalism does allow regions to have more autonomy and self-governance.

Ram Ganesh says: I like federalism because it will mean that powers that were earlier enjoyed by the king will now be exercised by our elected representatives. This also reflects a correct understanding. Federalism brings government closer to the people and ensures democratic participation.

Now students, for the activity about listening to news bulletins, I would encourage you to do this exercise. Try to classify news items into those that relate only to the Central Government, those that relate only to State Governments, and those that show the relationship between the two. This will help you understand how federalism works in practice.

For the activity about linguistic reorganisation, you can write a short note on whether the formation of linguistic states has strengthened or weakened India. Based on the example of states like Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, or any other state that was affected by linguistic reorganisation, you can argue that linguistic states have actually strengthened Indian democracy by accommodating diversity and reducing conflicts.

Now students, let me give you a quick recap of what we learned in this chapter.

We started by understanding what federalism is - a system of government where power is divided between a central authority and constituent units of the country. We learned about the two types of federations - coming together and holding together federations. We learned the six key features of federalism.

Then we explored what makes India a federal country. We learned about the three lists in the Indian Constitution - Union List, State List, and Concurrent List. We learned about Union Territories and special status states. We learned about how difficult it is to change the power-sharing arrangement in India.

We then discussed how federalism is practiced in India. We learned about the creation of linguistic states, the language policy, and how centre-state relations have evolved over time. We learned about the rise of coalition governments and how this has strengthened federalism.

We also learned about the linguistic diversity of India and how the constitution recognizes 22 scheduled languages.

Finally, we learned about decentralisation - the third tier of government in India. We learned about Panchayati Raj institutions, municipalities, and the 1992 Constitutional amendment that strengthened local self-government.

This is the end of our lesson on Federalism. I hope you now have a clear understanding of how power is shared in India and why federalism is so important for our diverse democracy. Remember, federalism is not just a theoretical concept - it is a living practice that affects our daily lives. Thank you for your attention, and I will see you in the next lesson.