New Beginnings: Cities And States

Hello students, welcome to today's lesson! I am so happy to see you all here, ready to learn about an exciting chapter in our history – Chapter 4, "New Beginnings: Cities and States." Now, before we begin, let me tell you something interesting. Have you ever wondered how our country, India, became what it is today? How did small villages turn into big cities? How did different kingdoms and states come into existence? Well, that's exactly what we are going to explore in this chapter. So, sit back, relax, and let's travel back in time together – not to a hundred years ago, but to over two and a half thousand years ago! Yes, we are going to learn about the Second Urbanisation of India, about janapadas and mahājanapadas, about early democratic traditions, and much more. Are you excited? I am sure you are! So let's begin.

First, let me read out to you a very interesting quotation that appears at the very beginning of this chapter. This is from a very ancient Indian text called the Arthaśhāstra, written by a wise man named Kauṭilya. Now, Kauṭilya was like a teacher to a king, and he wrote this book to teach the king how to rule his kingdom well. Listen carefully to what he says: "The kingdom shall be protected by fortifying the capital and the towns at the frontiers. The land should not only be capable of sustaining the population but also outsiders in times of calamities. It should be beautiful, being endowed with cultivable land, mines, timber forests, elephant forests, and good pastures rich in cattle. It should not depend only on rain for water. It should have good roads and waterways. It should have a productive economy, with a wide variety of commodities..."

Now students, isn't that wonderful? Even thousands of years ago, our ancestors understood what makes a kingdom or a city successful! They knew that a good kingdom needs good roads, water supply, fertile land, forests, and trade. This shows us that even in ancient times, people were very wise and understood the needs of a growing society. And as we go through this chapter, we will see how these ideas slowly took shape in India.

Now, let's start by understanding what the chapter calls "The Big Questions." There are three main questions that we need to answer by the end of this lesson. First, what is meant by 'Second Urbanisation of India'? Second, why were the janapadas and mahājanapadas an important development in India's early history? And third, what kind of system of governance did they evolve? Keep these questions in your mind as we go through the chapter, because by the end, you should be able to answer all of them confidently.

To understand the Second Urbanisation, we first need to recall what happened before it. Students, do you remember learning about the Indus Valley Civilisation or the Harappan Civilisation? That was India's First Urbanisation, which happened in the early 2nd millennium BCE, that is, over a few centuries after 2000 BCE. Now, let me remind you what that civilization was like. It was one of the world's earliest and most advanced civilizations. Its cities like Harappa and Mohenjo-daro had elaborate structures, both private and public. They had crowded streets and busy markets. They had different communities with specialised occupations – metalsmiths, potters, builders, weavers, craftspeople, and so on. They had a writing system, a sanitation system, the presence of an administration, and behind it all, a larger state structure with a ruling class at the head. It was truly amazing!

But then, something happened. The Indus/Harappan Civilisation disintegrated. Some of its cities were abandoned; in others, some people continued living there, but they reverted to a rural or village lifestyle. They had to, because all the components of the Harappan urban order had disappeared. And for a whole millennium – that's a thousand years, students! – urban life remained absent from India. There may have been a few towns here and there in north India, but nothing like the great cities of the Harappan period.

Now, here comes the exciting part! Then, in the 1st millennium BCE, a vibrant new phase of urbanisation began in the Ganga plains, parts of the Indus or Sindhu basin, and neighbouring regions. Gradually, it spread to other parts of the Subcontinent. How do we know this? Mainly from two sources: first, archaeological excavations that have confirmed the existence of those ancient urban centres, and second, ancient literature describing them – late Vedic, Buddhist, and Jain literatures are full of references to these new urban centres. This new phase is often called India's "Second Urbanisation" – which, incidentally, has continued right up to today! That means the cities we live in now are part of this same process that started over two and a half thousand years ago. Isn't that amazing?

Now, let's understand how this Second Urbanisation emerged. It started with something called janapadas. Towards the end of the 2nd millennium BCE, regional cultures gradually reorganised themselves in north India. As people formed clans or groups, probably sharing a common language and common customs, each clan came to be associated with a territory or janapada led by a rājā or ruler. Now, the word "janapada" is a Sanskrit word which means "where the people (jana) have set foot (pada)," that is, have settled down. So, a janapada was essentially a region where a particular group of people had settled.

The janapadas grew as trade networks expanded and connected them. By the 8th or 7th centuries BCE, some of those early states had merged together, and the resulting bigger units were known as mahājanapadas. Although the texts have different lists of them, the more frequent list gives the names of 16 mahājanapadas. These extended from Gandhāra in the northwest to Aṅga in the east and to Aśhmaka in central India, close to the Godavari River. There may have been a few more, along with some smaller janapadas continuing independently.

Now, students, here's an interesting question for you to think about. Notice how many of the mahājanapadas are concentrated in the Ganga plains. Why do you think this happened? There are several possible reasons. First, the growth of agriculture in the fertile Ganga plains was a major factor. The Ganga plains are extremely fertile because of the alluvial soil deposited by the Ganga river and its tributaries. This allowed people to grow more food, which could support a larger population. Second, the availability of iron ore in the mountains and hills nearby was important. We'll talk more about iron later, but for now, remember that iron tools helped in clearing forests and farming more efficiently. Third, the formation of new trade networks also helped these regions grow. So, the combination of fertile land, iron technology, and trade made the Ganga plains the heartland of the Second Urbanisation.

Now, let's look at the most powerful of these mahājanapadas. According to the chapter, the most powerful were Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa, and Avanti. Now, let me help you identify their capitals and match them with Indian cities of today. Magadha had its capital first at Rajagṛiha, which is modern-day Rajgir in Bihar, and later at Pāṭaliputra, which is modern-day Patna in Bihar. Kosala had its capital at Śrāvastī, which is near the modern-day town of Balrampur in Uttar Pradesh. Vatsa had its capital at Kauśāmbī, which is near modern-day Prayagraj in Uttar Pradesh. And Avanti had its capital at Ujjayinī, which is modern-day Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh. Isn't it fascinating that most of these ancient capitals continue to be living cities today? They are 'modern' cities that are often 2,500 years old!

Now, the chapter also asks you to compare this map with the map of the regions mentioned in the Mahābhārata from your Grade 6 chapter "India, That Is Bharat" and list the names common to both maps. What do you think this implies? Well, it suggests that there was some continuity between the regions mentioned in the Mahābhārata and the mahājanapadas. The Mahābhārata is an epic that describes a great war between two sets of cousins – the Pāṇḍavas and the Kauravas – and it mentions many kingdoms and regions of ancient India. Some of these names appear in the list of mahājanapadas as well, which suggests that these regions were important throughout ancient Indian history.

Now, let's talk about the physical features of these mahājanapada capitals. The map shows the mahājanapadas' capitals, and most were fairly large, well-fortified cities. They had a moat running outside the fortifications as further defence. Now, what is a moat? A moat is a deep, wide ditch surrounding a fort or a fortified city and filled with water. It was a defensive feature – enemies would find it difficult to cross a moat filled with water! Often, the gateways through the rampart walls would be deliberately kept narrow, so guards could control the movement of people and goods entering or leaving the city. This shows that these cities were well-planned and had systems in place for security and regulation.

Now, let's move on to a very interesting topic – Early Democratic Traditions. Students, you might be surprised to learn that ancient India had some form of democracy! Let me explain.

Each janapada had an assembly or council, called sabhā or samiti, where matters concerning the clan would be discussed. Remember, from the chapter on "India's Cultural Roots" in Grade 6, that the words sabhā and samiti first appear in the Vedas, India's most ancient texts. We may assume that most of the members were elders in the clan. The rājā was not expected to rule independently or arbitrarily; a good ruler was supposed to take the advice from those assemblies, apart from the ministers and administrators. Indeed, according to some texts, an incompetent ruler could be removed by the assembly! Of course, while such mentions are significant, it does not mean that this was an established law; let us remember that the data we have for such remote periods is incomplete.

In their political systems, the mahājanapadas expanded the basic principles of the janapadas. Some were, in effect, monarchies, in the sense that the rājā was the ultimate authority, supported by ministers and an assembly of elders. His position was hereditary, in the sense that a rājā would usually be the son of the previous one. The king would collect taxes or revenue, maintain law and order, get impressive fortifications built around their capital, and maintain an army to defend the territory or wage war with neighbouring ones, as the case may be. Magadha, Kosala, and Avanti were among the most powerful such states.

However, at least two mahājanapadas, Vajji or Vṛjji and the neighbouring Malla, had a different system. In these states, the sabhā or samiti had more power and took important decisions through discussion, and, if necessary, through vote. Surprisingly, this included the selection of the rājā! This means that those mahājanapadas, which were called gaṇas or saṅghas, were not monarchies – their functioning might be called democratic, since members of the assembly were the ones to select the ruler and take major decisions. In fact, scholars have often called them "early republics," as they are indeed one of the earliest such systems in the world. Isn't that wonderful, students? Our country has a long tradition of democratic thinking, going back over two and a half thousand years!

Now, let's recap what we've learned so far. We talked about the First Urbanisation – the Indus Valley Civilisation – which declined around 2000 BCE. Then, after a gap of about a thousand years, the Second Urbanisation began in the 1st millennium BCE, starting with janapadas and then mahājanapadas. We learned about the 16 mahājanapadas, their capitals, and how some of them were monarchies while others were early republics or gaṇas. We also learned about the fortifications and defensive systems of these cities. Now, let's move on to the next section – More Innovations.

The age of the janapadas and mahājanapadas was an age of profound change, which would impact Indian civilisation until present times. We already saw the emergence of several new schools of thought – late Vedic, Buddhist, Jain in particular, and their respective literatures. Those schools disseminated their teachings and literature through scholars, monks, and nuns travelling across India or people undertaking pilgrimages. Indian art also underwent a renewal.

Now, urbanisation does not happen without technologies. We already know that the Harappan civilisation mastered copper and bronze metallurgy. Now, in this Second Urbanisation, a major shift in technology involved iron metallurgy. In several regions of India, the techniques of extracting and shaping iron were actually perfected from the early 2nd millennium BCE, but it took a few centuries for iron to become a part of daily life. By the late 2nd millennium BCE, iron tools had become widespread, facilitating agriculture on a bigger scale. Iron tools like ploughshares, axes, and sickles made it easier to clear forests and cultivate land, leading to increased food production. This, in turn, supported larger populations and the growth of cities.

Iron also made better weapons than bronze – lighter and sharper. Swords, spears, arrows, shields, etc., made of iron were more effective in warfare. As it happens, there is some evidence of warfare between neighbouring mahājanapadas – how frequent or how intense it was, of course, is impossible to tell. Such military campaigns, but occasionally alliances too, gave rise to new kingdoms and empires, which we will turn to later in our journey.

Another very important innovation was the first use of coins in India, made necessary by growing trade. When people started trading more, barter – exchanging goods for goods – became inconvenient. If a farmer wanted to buy pottery but the potter didn't need wheat, how would they exchange? That's where coins came in! Coins acted as a medium of exchange – everyone agreed that a coin had a certain value, and it could be used to buy anything. Very soon, coins were exchanged across different regions and even with other parts of the world. The first Indian coins were made of silver, a soft metal into which symbols could be "punched"; they are called "punch-marked coins." Later, coins of copper, gold, and other metals were also made. Generally, a mahājanapada issued its own coins, but coins from neighbouring regions were used as well as exchanged in trade.

Now, let's do the activity given in the chapter. The chapter asks us to fill up a table comparing the First Urbanisation and the Second Urbanisation. Let me help you with this.

First, let's look at whether each factor was present in the First Urbanisation or the Second Urbanisation, or both.

Ganga plains: The First Urbanisation was mainly in the Indus valley and Gujarat – cities like Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Dholavira, and Lothal. The Ganga plains were not a major centre of the First Urbanisation. But the Second Urbanisation was centred in the Ganga plains. So, for Ganga plains, First Urbanisation would be No or Cross, and Second Urbanisation would be Yes or Tick.

Monasteries: Monasteries are associated with Buddhism and Jainism, which emerged in the 1st millennium BCE, during the Second Urbanisation. The First Urbanisation predates these religions. So, monasteries: First Urbanisation – No; Second Urbanisation – Yes.

Literature: The First Urbanisation had the Harappan script, but we haven't been able to fully decipher it, and it wasn't a literature in the sense of religious or philosophical texts. The Second Urbanisation saw the production of vast amounts of literature – the Vedas, Buddhist scriptures, Jain texts, epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata. So, literature: First Urbanisation – Limited or No; Second Urbanisation – Yes.

Trade: Both urbanisations had trade. The Harappans had extensive trade networks, both within India and with Mesopotamia. The Second Urbanisation also had vibrant trade, both overland and maritime. So, trade: First Urbanisation – Yes; Second Urbanisation – Yes.

Warfare: Both urbanisations likely had some form of warfare or conflict, though evidence is limited. So, warfare: First Urbanisation – Yes (probably); Second Urbanisation – Yes.

Copper/bronze: The First Urbanisation was known for copper and bronze metallurgy. The Second Urbanisation also used these metals, but iron became more important. So, copper/bronze: First Urbanisation – Yes; Second Urbanisation – Yes.

Iron: Iron metallurgy became widespread during the Second Urbanisation. The First Urbanisation did not use iron extensively. So, iron: First Urbanisation – No; Second Urbanisation – Yes.

Now, let's move on to another important topic – the Varṇa-Jāti System. We saw earlier how human societies grew more complex with the rise of civilisation. Whenever this happens, a society organises itself in several groups based on class, occupation, or some other criteria. For instance, there could be different groups concerned with governance, administration, religion, education, trade, town-planning, farming, crafts, arts, and all kinds of other professions.

In an ideal society, all those groups would complement each other and work in harmony. But most of the time, these divisions also lead to inequalities: some groups acquire more wealth, power, or influence than others. In other words, while equality is an ideal that human societies have often aspired to, very few, if any, have ever achieved it.

In India, the society was organised in a two-fold system. One category was the jāti, a group or community of people with a specific professional occupation closely tied to their livelihood. The skills that defined a particular jāti – for instance, skill in agriculture, metallurgy, commerce, or any craft – was generally transmitted from generation to generation. Often, a jāti would get further subdivided into sub-jātis, each of which developed customs and traditions of its own, for instance concerning marriage, rituals, or food habits.

Along with the jāti, there is another category, that of varṇa, a concept that emerged from Vedic texts. There were four varṇas: Brahmins were engaged in preserving and spreading knowledge, and in the performance of rituals; Kshatriyas were expected to defend the society and the land, and to engage in warfare if necessary; Vaishyas were supposed to increase the society's wealth through occupations of trade, business, or agriculture; finally, Shudras were the artisans, craftspeople, workers, or servants.

Now, here's an important note for you. You may have heard the English word "caste." It comes from a Portuguese word, casta, as Portuguese travellers to India in the 16th century CE tried to make sense of Indian society. While a few scholars consider "caste" to refer to varṇas, most take it to apply to jātis; yet others consider "caste" to refer to the whole varṇa-jāti system.

There is historical evidence, both in texts and inscriptions, that in the early period individuals and communities changed their professional occupations if circumstances demanded. For instance, a long drought or some natural calamity could force a community of farmers to migrate to a city and take up other occupations, or some Brahmins would turn to trade or even military activities. This complex system structured Indian society, organised its activities, including economic ones, and therefore gave it some stability. In time, however, the system became rigid and led to inequalities and discrimination towards the lower jātis or some communities excluded from the varṇa-jāti system. This process will be studied in a higher grade.

The varṇa-jāti system has had a deep impact on Indian society, and generations of scholars have studied its countless aspects. There is a broad agreement that the system was significantly different – more flexible, in particular – in earlier periods and became more rigid with the passage of time, in particular during the British rule in India. Let us also keep in mind that while varṇa-jāti has been an important mechanism at work in Indian society, it is not the only one; there have been many others, some of which we will explore later.

Now, the chapter asks you to think about why a complex society divides itself into groups. Some possible factors include the need for specialisation – not everyone can be good at everything, so people focus on what they do best. Another factor is the need for social organisation – it's easier to manage a society when people are grouped according to their occupations. Also, different groups may have different interests, and having a system to represent these interests can help in governance. As for other professions you might expect in a complex society of the 1st millennium BCE, think about teachers, doctors, priests, merchants, bankers, potters, weavers, carpenters, fishermen, hunters, soldiers, government officials, and many more.

Now, let's think about inequalities. Inequalities within society can exist in many forms. Have you encountered any incident where you or anyone you know might have been made to feel different from others? Do you think equality is desirable in a society? If so, why? Have you come across people or initiatives that lessened inequalities? These are important questions for us to reflect upon. Equality is desirable because every human being deserves respect and opportunities regardless of their background. A more equal society tends to be more peaceful, prosperous, and happy. There are many people and organisations working even today to reduce inequalities, which shows that this is an ongoing concern.

Now, let's move on to developments elsewhere in India. In this 1st millennium BCE, important communication routes opened up for purposes of trade, pilgrimage, military campaigns, etc. Two routes became widely used and are often mentioned in the literature: the Uttarapatha and the Dakṣiṇapatha. The first connected the northwest regions to the Ganga plains, all the way to eastern India; the second started from Kauśāmbī, then a capital of one of the mahājanapadas, and crossed the Vindhya Range of hills to proceed all the way south. We will return to these routes when we explore the formation of empires in India.

Many lateral roads also connected with other parts of India, especially the important ports on the western and eastern coasts, which were vibrant centres of trade. In the eastern region, major cities emerged, such as Śhiśhupalgarh, today Sisupalgarh, part of Bhubaneswar, which was the capital of the Kalinga region and followed a strict square ground plan, with imposing fortifications and broad streets.

In the Subcontinent's southern regions, cities began emerging from about 400 BCE, although recent excavations claim to find some signs of commercial activities going further back. Around this time, three kingdoms emerged – the Cholas, the Cheras, and the Pāndyas. Apart from archaeological evidence, the most ancient Tamil literature mentions those kingdoms and several of their kings. Because the southern regions are rich in resources such as precious and semi-precious stones, gold, and spices, they profitably traded not only with the rest of India but also with kingdoms and empires overseas.

By 300 or 200 BCE, almost the entire Subcontinent, including regions in the Northeast, was one vibrant interconnected land; goods and culture travelled from region to region, and often beyond India to parts of Central and Southeast Asia. About the same time, the mahājanapadas ceased to exist, leaving the place to fresh developments that were going to reshape India.

Now, let's look at the timeline given in the chapter. It covers the period from 1900 BCE to 300 BCE. This timeline shows us the progression from the late Harappan period through the Vedic period, the emergence of janapadas and mahājanapadas, and finally the rise of empires. It's important to remember that these are approximate dates, and different scholars may have slightly different interpretations.

Now, let me summarise what we have learned in the "Before we move on..." section. From the end of the 2nd millennium BCE, janapadas rose in parts of north and central India; they were smaller states with a rājā at the head taking counsel from an assembly of elders. The 16 mahājanapadas were the first organised states of the 1st millennium BCE; they witnessed the Second Urbanisation of India, which spread in all directions from the Ganga region, all the way to south India. By 300 BCE or so, the mahājanapadas ceased to exist. In the same period, a vast network of roads connected north and south, east and west, and eventually all regions of the Subcontinent. People, goods, ideas, and teachings travelled along all those roads.

Now, students, it's time for the Questions and Activities. Let me go through each one and help you answer them.

Question 1: Consider the quotation at the start of the chapter and discuss in several groups. Compare your observations and conclusions on what Kauṭilya recommends for a kingdom. Is it very different today?

Let's think about what Kauṭilya recommends. He talks about fortifying the capital and frontier towns, ensuring the land can sustain the population and outsiders in calamities, having cultivable land, mines, forests, good pastures, not depending only on rain for water, having good roads and waterways, and having a productive economy with a wide variety of commodities. Is this very different today? Not really! Even today, countries focus on fortifying their borders, ensuring food security, developing industries and agriculture, building roads and waterways, and promoting trade. So, the basic principles of good governance haven't changed much, though the specifics and methods have evolved.

Question 2: According to the text, how were rulers chosen in early Vedic society?

According to the text, in early Vedic society, each janapada had an assembly or council called sabhā or samiti, where matters concerning the clan would be discussed. The rājā was not expected to rule independently or arbitrarily; a good ruler was supposed to take the advice from those assemblies. In some mahājanapadas like Vajji and Malla, which were called gaṇas or saṅghas, the sabhā or samiti had more power and even selected the rājā through discussion and vote. So, in early Vedic society, rulers were chosen either through hereditary succession or through selection by the assembly, depending on the type of polity.

Question 3: Imagine you are a historian studying ancient India. What types of sources (archaeological, literary, etc.) would you use to learn more about the mahājanapadas? Explain how each source might contribute to your understanding.

As a historian studying ancient India, I would use several types of sources. First, archaeological sources – excavations of ancient cities like Rajgir, Ujjain, and others can tell us about the layout of cities, their fortifications, the materials used, and the lifestyle of people. Coins, pottery, tools, and other artifacts found during excavations provide direct evidence of the material culture. Second, literary sources – ancient texts like the Vedas, Buddhist scriptures, Jain texts, and epics like the Mahabharata mention many of these mahājanapadas and give us information about their politics, society, and culture. Third, inscriptions – though they become more common later, some inscriptions from the Mauryan period and afterwards mention earlier polities and give us clues about governance. Fourth, foreign accounts – travelers like Megasthenes wrote about India and its kingdoms, though from a slightly later period. By combining all these sources, we can piece together a picture of the mahājanapadas.

Question 4: Why was the development of iron metallurgy so important for the growth of urbanism in the 1st millennium BCE? You may use points from the chapter but also from your knowledge or imagination.

The development of iron metallurgy was crucial for the growth of urbanism in several ways. First, iron tools like ploughshares made agriculture more efficient. Farmers could clear forests more easily and cultivate land more deeply, leading to increased food production. This could support larger populations, which is essential for urbanisation. Second, iron tools improved craftsmanship – carpenters, builders, and artisans could work more efficiently with iron tools, leading to better construction and production. Third, iron weapons made warfare more effective, which led to the rise of stronger kingdoms that could protect and administer larger territories. Fourth, iron facilitated trade by providing better tools for making carts, boats, and other transport equipment. So, iron metallurgy was a game-changer that enabled the Second Urbanisation to flourish.

Now, students, we have covered the entire chapter. Let me give you a brief recap of everything we have learned.

In this chapter, we learned about the Second Urbanisation of India, which began in the 1st millennium BCE in the Ganga plains and gradually spread across the Subcontinent. We learned about janapadas, which were smaller territories led by a rājā, and how they evolved into mahājanapadas, which were larger political units. We studied the 16 mahājanapadas, their capitals, and identified them with modern Indian cities. We explored the early democratic traditions in ancient India, where some mahājanapadas like Vajji and Malla had assemblies that selected rulers and made important decisions through discussion and vote. We learned about important innovations like iron metallurgy and coins, which facilitated urban growth and trade. We understood the Varṇa-Jāti system, which organised Indian society into different groups based on occupation and birth. We also learned about the development of roads like Uttarapatha and Dakṣiṇapatha, and the emergence of southern kingdoms like the Cholas, Cheras, and Pāndyas. Finally, we answered all the questions and activities at the end of the chapter.

Students, this chapter tells us that India has a long and rich history of urbanisation, governance, and innovation. From the decline of the Harappan civilisation to the rise of mahājanapadas, from early democratic traditions to the development of iron technology and coinage, our ancestors laid the foundation for the India we know today. It's important to remember this heritage and appreciate the contributions of those who came before us.

That's all for today, students! I hope you enjoyed this lesson and learned something new. Remember to revise the chapter thoroughly and practice answering the questions. Thank you for your attention, and I'll see you in the next lesson!