Good morning, my dear students. I am so happy to see you all today. Today we are going to begin a very important chapter in your History textbook. The chapter is called "Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution" and it is Chapter 2 of your NCERT book for Class 9 History. This is a chapter that will help you understand one of the most powerful ideas that shaped the twentieth century — the idea of socialism — and how it led to a revolution that changed the entire world. So students, sit back, relax, and let us travel back in time to understand how the world changed forever.
Let me begin by asking you a question. Have you ever thought about why some people are very rich while many others are very poor? Why do some people own big factories and lands while others work in those factories for very low wages? This is exactly what people in Europe started thinking about in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and that is where our story begins.
In the previous chapter, you read about the French Revolution. You remember, don't you, how the French Revolution brought ideas of freedom and equality? Before the French Revolution, European society was divided into what we call "estates" and "orders." There were the nobles, the clergy, and everyone else. The aristocracy and the church controlled all the economic and social power. But after the French Revolution, everything seemed possible. Suddenly, people started thinking that perhaps society could be changed dramatically. New ideas about individual rights and who should control social power began to be discussed not just in Europe, but in Asia as well, including in India. You might recall that Raja Rammohan Roy and Henry Derozio in India talked about the significance of the French Revolution. So you see, students, ideas travel across the world!
Now, not everyone in Europe wanted a complete transformation of society. Different people had different views. Some said yes, change is necessary but let it happen slowly. Others said no, we need to completely restructure society. Based on these views, people were grouped into three main political traditions: conservatives, liberals, and radicals. Let me explain each one very clearly.
Conservatives, students, are people who believe that the past has value and that change should happen very slowly. They respect traditions and customs. After the French Revolution, even conservatives accepted that some change was inevitable, but they believed that the past must be respected. They did not want sudden or radical changes. Think of it like this — if your grandmother has been cooking a particular dish in a certain way for fifty years, a conservative person would say "let us keep cooking it the same way, maybe just make small improvements." That is the conservative mindset.
Liberals, on the other hand, wanted a nation that tolerated all religions. At that time, remember, European states usually favored one religion over others. Britain favored the Church of England, while Austria and Spain favored the Catholic Church. Liberals wanted everyone to have the freedom to practice their own religion. Liberals also opposed the uncontrolled power of kings and queens. They wanted the rights of individuals to be protected against government. They argued for a representative, elected parliamentary government, with laws interpreted by a well-trained judiciary that was independent of rulers and officials. However, students, here is something interesting — liberals were not "democrats." They did not believe in universal adult franchise, meaning they did not think every citizen should have the right to vote. They felt that only men of property should have the vote. And they definitely did not want women to have the right to vote. This might sound unfair to us today, but that is how they thought at that time.
Radicals were different from liberals. Radicals wanted a nation where the government was based on the majority of the country's population. Many radicals supported the suffragette movement, which was a movement to give women the right to vote. Unlike liberals, radicals opposed the privileges of great landowners and wealthy factory owners. They were not against private property entirely, but they disliked the fact that property was concentrated in the hands of a few very rich people. They wanted a more equal distribution of wealth.
Now, students, let me pause here and recap what we have learned so far. We talked about how after the French Revolution, new ideas about society began to emerge. We learned about three political groups: conservatives who wanted slow change, liberals who wanted religious tolerance and representative government but only for property owners, and radicals who wanted government by the majority and were against concentration of wealth. Are these concepts clear? Please make sure you understand them before we move on.
Now, let us talk about a very important development that changed everything — the Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution brought profound social and economic changes. New cities came up, new industrial regions developed, railways expanded, and factories became the heart of production. But industrialization also brought problems. Men, women, and children were brought to factories to work. Work hours were often very long, wages were poor, unemployment was common especially during times when there was low demand for industrial goods, and housing and sanitation were huge problems because towns were growing very fast. Both liberals and radicals searched for solutions to these issues.
Now, here is an important point. Almost all industries were the property of individuals. Remember, both liberals and radicals themselves were often property owners and employers. They had made their wealth through trade or industrial ventures, and they felt that such effort should be encouraged. They believed that if freedom of individuals was ensured, if the poor could labor, and those with capital could operate without restraint, societies would develop. They were opposed to the privileges that the old aristocracy had simply by birth, and they firmly believed in the value of individual effort, labor, and enterprise. Many working men and women who wanted changes in the world rallied around liberal and radical groups and parties in the early nineteenth century.
Some nationalists, liberals, and radicals wanted revolutions to put an end to the kind of governments established in Europe in 1815. In France, Italy, Germany, and Russia, they became revolutionaries and worked to overthrow existing monarchs. Nationalists talked of revolutions that would create "nations" where all citizens would have equal rights. After 1815, Giuseppe Mazzini, an Italian nationalist, conspired with others to achieve this in Italy. Nationalists elsewhere, including in India, read his writings. So you see, students, ideas were spreading across the world.
Now we come to perhaps the most important idea of all — socialism. By the mid-nineteenth century in Europe, socialism was a well-known body of ideas that attracted widespread attention. Socialists were against private property. They saw private property as the root of all social ills of the time. Why did they think this? Let me explain. Individuals owned the property that gave employment, but the propertied were concerned only with personal gain and not with the welfare of those who made the property productive. So if society as a whole, rather than single individuals, controlled property, more attention would be paid to collective social interests. Socialists wanted this change and campaigned for it.
Now, how could a society without private property operate? What would be the basis of socialist society? Socialists had different visions of the future. Some believed in the idea of cooperatives. Robert Owen, a leading English manufacturer, sought to build a cooperative community called New Harmony in Indiana in the United States. Other socialists felt that cooperatives could not be built on a wide scale only through individual initiative. They demanded that governments encourage cooperatives. In France, for instance, Louis Blanc wanted the government to encourage cooperatives and replace capitalist enterprises. These cooperatives were to be associations of people who produced goods together and divided the profits according to the work done by members.
Then came two very important thinkers — Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels added other ideas to this body of arguments. Marx argued that industrial society was "capitalist." Capitalists owned the capital invested in factories, and the profit of capitalists was produced by workers. The conditions of workers could not improve as long as this profit was accumulated by private capitalists. Workers had to overthrow capitalism and the rule of private property. Marx believed that to free themselves from capitalist exploitation, workers had to construct a radically socialist society where all property was socially controlled. This would be a communist society. He was convinced that workers would triumph in their conflict with capitalists. A communist society, said Marx, was the natural society of the future. Students, this is a very important concept. Marx's ideas became the foundation of communism and influenced revolutions across the world.
Now, by the 1870s, socialist ideas spread through Europe. To coordinate their efforts, socialists formed an international body — namely, the Second International. Workers in England and Germany began forming associations to fight for better living and working conditions. They set up funds to help members in times of distress and demanded a reduction of working hours and the right to vote. In Germany, these associations worked closely with the Social Democratic Party and helped it win parliamentary seats. By 1905, socialists and trade unionists formed a Labour Party in Britain and a Socialist Party in France. However, till 1914, socialists never succeeded in forming a government in Europe. Represented by strong figures in parliamentary politics, their ideas did shape legislation, but governments continued to be run by conservatives, liberals, and radicals.
But students, in one of the least industrialized of European states, this situation was reversed. Socialists took over the government in Russia through the October Revolution of 1917. The fall of monarchy in February 1917 and the events of October are normally called the Russian Revolution. How did this come about? What were the social and political conditions in Russia when the revolution occurred? To answer these questions, let us look at Russia a few years before the revolution.
In 1914, Tsar Nicholas II ruled Russia and its empire. Besides the territory around Moscow, the Russian empire included current-day Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, parts of Poland, Ukraine, and Belarus. It stretched to the Pacific and comprised today's Central Asian states, as well as Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan. The majority religion was Russian Orthodox Christianity, which had grown out of the Greek Orthodox Church, but the empire also included Catholics, Protestants, Muslims, and Buddhists.
Now, let us look at the economy and society in Russia at the beginning of the twentieth century. The vast majority of Russia's people were agriculturists. About 85 percent of the Russian empire's population earned their living from agriculture. This proportion was higher than in most European countries. For instance, in France and Germany the proportion was between 40 percent and 50 percent. In the empire, cultivators produced for the market as well as for their own needs, and Russia was a major exporter of grain.
Industry was found in pockets. Prominent industrial areas were St. Petersburg and Moscow. Craftsmen undertook much of the production, but large factories existed alongside craft workshops. Many factories were set up in the 1890s, when Russia's railway network was extended, and foreign investment in industry increased. Coal production doubled and iron and steel output quadrupled. By the 1900s, in some areas factory workers and craftsmen were almost equal in number.
Most industry was the private property of industrialists. Government supervised large factories to ensure minimum wages and limited hours of work. But factory inspectors could not prevent rules being broken. In craft units and small workshops, the working day was sometimes 15 hours, compared with 10 or 12 hours in factories. Accommodation varied from rooms to dormitories.
Workers were a divided social group. Some had strong links with the villages from which they came. Others had settled in cities permanently. Workers were divided by skill. A metalworker of St. Petersburg recalled, "Metalworkers considered themselves aristocrats among other workers. Their occupations demanded more training and skill..." Women made up 31 percent of the factory labor force by 1914, but they were paid less than men, between half and three-quarters of a man's wage. Divisions among workers showed themselves in dress and manners too. Some workers formed associations to help members in times of unemployment or financial hardship, but such associations were few.
Despite divisions, workers did unite to strike work when they disagreed with employers about dismissals or work conditions. These strikes took place frequently in the textile industry during 1896-1897, and in the metal industry during 1902.
In the countryside, peasants cultivated most of the land. But the nobility, the crown, and the Orthodox Church owned large properties. Like workers, peasants too were divided. They were also deeply religious. But except in a few cases they had no respect for the nobility. Nobles got their power and position through their services to the Tsar, not through local popularity. This was unlike France where, during the French Revolution in Brittany, peasants respected nobles and fought for them. In Russia, peasants wanted the land of the nobles to be given to them. Frequently, they refused to pay rent and even murdered landlords. In 1902, this occurred on a large scale in south Russia. And in 1905, such incidents took place all over Russia.
Russian peasants were different from other European peasants in another way. They pooled their land together periodically and their commune, called the mir, divided it according to the needs of individual families.
Now, let us talk about socialism in Russia. All political parties were illegal in Russia before 1914. The Russian Social Democratic Workers Party was founded in 1898 by socialists who respected Marx's ideas. However, because of government policing, it had to operate as an illegal organization. It set up a newspaper, mobilized workers, and organized strikes.
Some Russian socialists felt that the Russian peasant custom of dividing land periodically made them natural socialists. So peasants, not workers, would be the main force of the revolution, and Russia could become socialist more quickly than other countries. Socialists were active in the countryside through the late nineteenth century. They formed the Socialist Revolutionary Party in 1900. This party struggled for peasants' rights and demanded that land belonging to nobles be transferred to peasants. Social Democrats disagreed with Socialist Revolutionaries about peasants. Lenin felt that peasants were not one united group. Some were poor and others rich, some worked as laborers while others were capitalists who employed workers. Given this "differentiation" within them, they could not all be part of a socialist movement.
The party was divided over the strategy of organization. Vladimir Lenin, who led the Bolshevik group, thought that in a repressive society like Tsarist Russia the party should be disciplined and should control the number and quality of its members. Others, called Mensheviks, thought that the party should be open to all, as in Germany.
Now, students, we come to a very important event — the 1905 Revolution. Russia was an autocracy. Unlike other European rulers, even at the beginning of the twentieth century, the Tsar was not subject to parliament. Liberals in Russia campaigned to end this state of affairs. Together with the Social Democrats and Socialist Revolutionaries, they worked with peasants and workers during the revolution of 1905 to demand a constitution. They were supported in the empire by nationalists, in Poland for instance, and in Muslim-dominated areas by jadidists who wanted modernized Islam to lead their societies.
The year 1904 was a particularly bad one for Russian workers. Prices of essential goods rose so quickly that real wages declined by 20 percent. The membership of workers' associations rose dramatically. When four members of the Assembly of Russian Workers, which had been formed in 1904, were dismissed at the Putilov Iron Works, there was a call for industrial action. Over the next few days over 110,000 workers in St. Petersburg went on strike demanding a reduction in the working day to eight hours, an increase in wages, and improvement in working conditions.
When the procession of workers led by Father Gapon reached the Winter Palace, it was attacked by the police and the Cossacks. Over 100 workers were killed and about 300 wounded. The incident, known as Bloody Sunday, started a series of events that became known as the 1905 Revolution. Strikes took place all over the country and universities closed down when student bodies staged walkouts, complaining about the lack of civil liberties. Lawyers, doctors, engineers, and other middle-class workers established the Union of Unions and demanded a constituent assembly.
During the 1905 Revolution, the Tsar allowed the creation of an elected consultative Parliament or Duma. For a brief while during the revolution, there existed a large number of trade unions and factory committees made up of factory workers. After 1905, most committees and unions worked unofficially, since they were declared illegal. Severe restrictions were placed on political activity. The Tsar dismissed the first Duma within 75 days and the re-elected second Duma within three months. He did not want any questioning of his authority or any reduction in his power. He changed the voting laws and packed the third Duma with conservative politicians. Liberals and revolutionaries were kept out.
Now, students, let me stop here and ask you to think about the activity question. Why were there revolutionary disturbances in Russia in 1905? What were the demands of revolutionaries? Let me answer this for you. There were revolutionary disturbances in Russia in 1905 because of the terrible conditions faced by workers and peasants. Workers were facing low wages, long working hours, and high prices of essential goods. Real wages had declined by 20 percent. Peasants were demanding land because the nobility owned most of the land while peasants worked on it. The revolutionaries demanded an eight-hour working day, increase in wages, improvement in working conditions, and most importantly, they demanded a constitution that would give them elected representation and limit the power of the Tsar. They wanted an end to autocracy and the creation of a government that represented the people.
Now let us move on to the First World War and its impact on Russia. In 1914, war broke out between two European alliances — Germany, Austria, and Turkey, called the Central powers, and France, Britain, and Russia, later joined by Italy and Romania. Each country had a global empire. The war had a devastating impact on Russia. It strained the economy, caused massive casualties, and led to widespread discontent among the people.
Now we come to one of the most important events in world history — the February Revolution of 1917. In the winter of 1917, conditions in the capital, Petrograd, were grim. The layout of the city seemed to emphasize the divisions among its people. The workers' quarters and factories were located on the right bank of the River Neva. On the left bank were the fashionable areas, the Winter Palace, and official buildings, including the palace where the Duma met. In February 1917, food shortages were deeply felt in the workers' quarters. The winter was very cold — there had been exceptional frost and heavy snow. Parliamentarians wishing to preserve elected government were opposed to the Tsar's desire to dissolve the Duma.
On 22 February, a lockout took place at a factory on the right bank. The next day, workers in fifty factories called a strike in sympathy. In many factories, women led the way to strikes. This came to be called the International Women's Day. Demonstrating workers crossed from the factory quarters to the centre of the capital, the Nevskii Prospekt. At this stage, no political party was actively organizing the movement. As the fashionable quarters and official buildings were surrounded by workers, the government imposed a curfew. Demonstrators dispersed by the evening, but they came back on the 24th and 25th. The government called out the cavalry and police to keep an eye on them.
On Sunday, 25 February, the government suspended the Duma. Politicians spoke out against the measure. Demonstrators returned in force to the streets of the left bank on the 26th. On the 27th, the Police Headquarters were ransacked. The streets thronged with people raising slogans about bread, wages, better hours, and democracy. The government tried to control the situation and called out the cavalry once again. However, the cavalry refused to fire on the demonstrators. An officer was shot at the barracks of a regiment and three other regiments mutinied, voting to join the striking workers. By that evening, soldiers and striking workers had gathered to form a "soviet" or "council" in the same building as the Duma met. This was the Petrograd Soviet.
The very next day, a delegation went to see the Tsar. Military commanders advised him to abdicate. He followed their advice and abdicated on 2 March. Soviet leaders and Duma leaders formed a Provisional Government to run the country's future would be decided by a constituent assembly, elected on the basis of universal adult suffrage. Petrograd had led the February Revolution that brought down the monarchy in February 1917.
Now, students, I want you to notice something very important here. The February Revolution was led by workers, soldiers, and common people. It was not led by any political party initially. Women played a very important role, as you can see from the box about women in the February Revolution. At the Lorenz telephone factory, Marfa Vasileva almost single-handedly called a successful strike. Already that morning, in celebration of Women's Day, women workers had presented red bows to the men. Then Marfa Vasileva, a milling machine operator stopped work and declared an impromptu strike. The workers on the floor were ready to support her. The foreman informed the management and sent her a loaf of bread. She took the bread but refused to go back to work. The administrator asked her again why she refused to work and she replied, "I cannot be the only one who is satiated when others are hungry." Women workers from another section of the factory gathered around Marfa in support and gradually all the other women ceased working. Soon the men downed their tools as well and the entire crowd rushed onto the street. This shows the power of collective action, students.
Now, what happened after February? Army officials, landowners, and industrialists were influential in the Provisional Government. But the liberals as well as socialists among them worked towards an elected government. Restrictions on public meetings and associations were removed. "Soviets," like the Petrograd Soviet, were set up everywhere, though no common system of election was followed.
In April 1917, the Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin returned to Russia from his exile. He and the Bolsheviks had opposed the war since 1914. Now he felt it was time for soviets to take over power. He declared that the war be brought to a close, land be transferred to the peasants, and banks be nationalized. These three demands were Lenin's "April Theses." He also argued that the Bolshevik Party rename itself the Communist Party to indicate its new radical aims. Most others in the Bolshevik Party were initially surprised by the April Theses. They thought that the time was not yet ripe for a socialist revolution and the Provisional Government needed to be supported. But the developments of the subsequent months changed their attitude.
Through the summer the workers' movement spread. In industrial areas, factory committees were formed which began questioning the way industrialists ran their factories. Trade unions grew in number. Soldiers' committees were formed in the army. In June, about 500 Soviets sent representatives to an All Russian Congress of Soviets. As the Provisional Government saw its power reduce and Bolshevik influence grow, it decided to take stern measures against the spreading discontent. It resisted attempts by workers to run factories and began arresting leaders. Popular demonstrations staged by the Bolsheviks in July 1917 were sternly repressed. Many Bolshevik leaders had to go into hiding or flee.
Meanwhile in the countryside, peasants and their Socialist Revolutionary leaders pressed for a redistribution of land. Land committees were formed to handle this. Encouraged by the Socialist Revolutionaries, peasants seized land between July and September 1917.
Now we come to the October Revolution of 1917. As the conflict between the Provisional Government and the Bolsheviks grew, Lenin feared the Provisional Government would set up a dictatorship. In September, he began discussions for an uprising against the government. Bolshevik supporters in the army, soviets, and factories were brought together.
On 16 October 1917, Lenin persuaded the Petrograd Soviet and the Bolshevik Party to agree to a socialist seizure of power. A Military Revolutionary Committee was appointed by the Soviet under Leon Trotsky to organize the seizure. The date of the event was kept a secret.
The uprising began on 24 October. Sensing trouble, Prime Minister Kerenskii had left the city to summon troops. At dawn, military men loyal to the government seized the buildings of two Bolshevik newspapers. Pro-government troops were sent to take over telephone and telegraph offices and protect the Winter Palace. In a swift response, the Military Revolutionary Committee ordered its supporters to seize government offices and arrest ministers. Late in the day, the ship Aurora shelled the Winter Palace. Other vessels sailed down the Neva and took over various military points. By nightfall, the city was under the committee's control and the ministers had surrendered. At a meeting of the All Russian Congress of Soviets in Petrograd, the majority approved the Bolshevik action. Uprisings took place in other cities. There was heavy fighting, especially in Moscow, but by December, the Bolsheviks controlled the Moscow-Petrograd area.
Now, students, I want to tell you something interesting. Russia followed the Julian calendar until 1 February 1918. The country then changed to the Gregorian calendar, which is followed everywhere today. The Gregorian dates are 13 days ahead of the Julian dates. So by our calendar, the "February" Revolution took place on 12th March and the "October" Revolution took place on 7th November. This is why sometimes you will see the Russian Revolution being referred to as happening in March or November.
Now, what changed after October? The Bolsheviks were totally opposed to private property. Most industry and banks were nationalized in November 1917. This meant that the government took over ownership and management. Land was declared social property and peasants were allowed to seize the land of the nobility. In cities, Bolsheviks enforced the partition of large houses according to family requirements. They banned the use of the old titles of aristocracy. To assert the change, new uniforms were designed for the army and officials, following a clothing competition organized in 1918, when the Soviet hat, called the budeonovka, was chosen.
The Bolshevik Party was renamed the Russian Communist Party. In November 1917, the Bolsheviks conducted the elections to the Constituent Assembly, but they failed to gain majority support. In January 1918, the Assembly rejected Bolshevik measures and Lenin dismissed the Assembly. He thought the All Russian Congress of Soviets was more democratic than an assembly elected in uncertain conditions. In March 1918, despite opposition by their political allies, the Bolsheviks made peace with Germany at Brest Litovsk. In the years that followed, the Bolsheviks became the only party to participate in the elections to the All Russian Congress of Soviets, which became the Parliament of the country. Russia became a one-party state. Trade unions were kept under party control. The secret police, called the Cheka first, and later OGPU and NKVD, punished those who criticized the Bolsheviks. Many young writers and artists rallied to the Party because it stood for socialism and for change. After October 1917, this led to experiments in the arts and architecture. But many became disillusioned because of the censorship the Party encouraged.
Now, let us talk about the Civil War. When the Bolsheviks ordered land redistribution, the Russian army began to break up. Soldiers, mostly peasants, wished to go home for the redistribution and deserted. Non-Bolshevik socialists, liberals, and supporters of autocracy condemned the Bolshevik uprising. Their leaders moved to south Russia and organized troops to fight the Bolsheviks, called the "reds." During 1918 and 1919, the "greens," meaning Socialist Revolutionaries, and "whites," meaning pro-Tsarists, controlled most of the Russian empire. They were backed by French, American, British, and Japanese troops, all those forces who were worried at the growth of socialism in Russia. As these troops and the Bolsheviks fought a civil war, looting, banditry, and famine became common.
Supporters of private property among "whites" took harsh steps with peasants who had seized land. Such actions led to the loss of popular support for the non-Bolsheviks. By January 1920, the Bolsheviks controlled most of the former Russian empire. They succeeded due to cooperation with non-Russian nationalities and Muslim jadidists. Cooperation did not work where Russian colonists themselves turned Bolshevik. In Khiva, in Central Asia, Bolshevik colonists brutally massacred local nationalists in the name of defending socialism. In this situation, many were confused about what the Bolshevik government represented.
Partly to remedy this, most non-Russian nationalities were given political autonomy in the Soviet Union, the USSR, the state the Bolsheviks created from the Russian empire in December 1922. But since this was combined with unpopular policies that the Bolsheviks forced the local government to follow, like the harsh discouragement of nomadism, attempts to win over different nationalities were only partly successful.
Now, let us talk about making a socialist society. During the civil war, the Bolsheviks kept industries and banks nationalized. They permitted peasants to cultivate the land that had been socialized. Bolsheviks used confiscated land to demonstrate what collective work could be.
A process of centralized planning was introduced. Officials assessed how the economy could work and set targets for a five-year period. On this basis they made the Five Year Plans. The government fixed all prices to promote industrial growth during the first two Plans, from 1927-1932 and 1933-1938. Centralized planning led to economic growth. Industrial production increased, between 1929 and 1933 by 100 percent in the case of oil, coal, and steel. New factory cities came into being.
However, rapid construction led to poor working conditions. In the city of Magnitogorsk, the construction of a steel plant was achieved in three years. Workers lived hard lives and the result was 550 stoppages of work in the first year alone. In living quarters, "in the wintertime, at 40 degrees below, people had to climb down from the fourth floor and dash across the street in order to go to the toilet."
An extended schooling system developed, and arrangements were made for factory workers and peasants to enter universities. Crèches were established in factories for the children of women workers. Cheap public health care was provided. Model living quarters were set up for workers. The effect of all this was uneven, though, since government resources were limited.
Now we come to a very important and controversial period — Stalinism and collectivization. The period of the early Planned Economy was linked to the disasters of the collectivization of agriculture. By 1927-1928, the towns in Soviet Russia were facing an acute problem of grain supplies. The government fixed prices at which grain must be sold, but the peasants refused to sell their grain to government buyers at these prices.
Stalin, who headed the party after the death of Lenin, introduced firm emergency measures. He believed that rich peasants and traders in the countryside were holding stocks in the hope of higher prices. Speculation had to be stopped and supplies confiscated.
In 1928, Party members toured the grain-producing areas, supervising enforced grain collections, and raiding "kulaks," the name for well-to-do peasants. As shortages continued, the decision was taken to collectivize farms. It was argued that grain shortages were partly due to the small size of holdings. After 1917, land had been given over to peasants. These small-sized peasant farms could not be modernized. To develop modern farms, and run them along industrial lines with machinery, it was necessary to "eliminate kulaks," take away land from peasants, and establish state-controlled large farms.
What followed was Stalin's collectivization programme. From 1929, the Party forced all peasants to cultivate in collective farms, called kolkhoz. The bulk of land and implements were transferred to the ownership of collective farms. Peasants worked on the land, and the kolkhoz profit was shared. Enraged peasants resisted the authorities and destroyed their livestock. Between 1929 and 1931, the number of cattle fell by one-third. Those who resisted collectivization were severely punished. Many were deported and exiled. As they resisted collectivization, peasants argued that they were not rich and they were not against socialism. They merely did not want to work in collective farms for a variety of reasons. Stalin's government allowed some independent cultivation, but treated such cultivators unsympathetically.
In spite of collectivization, production did not increase immediately. In fact, the bad harvests of 1930-1933 led to one of the most devastating famines in Soviet history when over 4 million died.
Many within the Party criticized the confusion in industrial production under the Planned Economy and the consequences of collectivization. Stalin and his sympathizers charged these critics with conspiracy against socialism. Accusations were made throughout the country, and by 1939, over 2 million were in prisons or labor camps. Most were innocent of the crimes, but no one spoke for them. A large number were forced to make false confessions under torture and were executed, several among them were talented professionals.
Now, let us talk about the global influence of the Russian Revolution and the USSR. Existing socialist parties in Europe did not wholly approve of the way the Bolsheviks took power and kept it. However, the possibility of a workers' state fired people's imagination across the world. In many countries, communist parties were formed, like the Communist Party of Great Britain. The Bolsheviks encouraged colonial peoples to follow their experiment. Many non-Russians from outside the USSR participated in the Conference of the Peoples of the East in 1920 and the Bolshevik-founded Comintern, an international union of pro-Bolshevik socialist parties. Some received education in the USSR's Communist University of the Workers of the East. By the time of the outbreak of the Second World War, the USSR had given socialism a global face and world stature.
Yet by the 1950s it was acknowledged within the country that the style of government in the USSR was not in keeping with the ideals of the Russian Revolution. In the world socialist movement too it was recognized that all was not well in the Soviet Union. A backward country had become a great power. Its industries and agriculture had developed and the poor were being fed. But it had denied the essential freedoms to its citizens and carried out its developmental projects through repressive policies. By the end of the twentieth century, the international reputation of the USSR as a socialist country had declined, though it was recognized that socialist ideals still enjoyed respect among its people. But in each country the ideas of socialism were rethought in a variety of different ways.
Among those the Russian Revolution inspired were many Indians. Several attended the Communist University. By the mid-1920s the Communist Party was formed in India. Its members kept in touch with the Soviet Communist Party. Important Indian political and cultural figures took an interest in the Soviet experiment and visited Russia, among them Jawaharlal Nehru and Rabindranath Tagore, who wrote about Soviet Socialism. In India, writings gave impressions of Soviet Russia. In Hindi, R.S. Avasthi wrote in 1920-21 "Russian Revolution, Lenin, His Life and His Thoughts," and later "The Red Revolution." S.D. Vidyalankar wrote "The Rebirth of Russia" and "The Soviet State of Russia." There was much that was written in Bengali, Marathi, Malayalam, Tamil, and Telugu.
Now, students, we have covered the entire chapter. Now let me answer all the questions at the end of the chapter. Let me begin with the activity questions.
The first activity asks: Why were there revolutionary disturbances in Russia in 1905? What were the demands of revolutionaries? We already answered this, but let me summarize. There were revolutionary disturbances in Russia in 1905 because of the terrible conditions faced by workers and peasants. Workers faced low wages, long working hours, and high prices. Real wages had declined by 20 percent in 1904. Peasants were demanding land because the nobility owned most land while peasants worked on it. The revolutionaries demanded an eight-hour working day, increase in wages, improvement in working conditions, and an end to autocracy through a constitution.
The second activity asks: The year is 1916. You are a general in the Tsar's army on the eastern front. You are writing a report for the government in Moscow. In your report suggest what you think the government should do to improve the situation. Let me write this as if I were that general. I would say: "Your Majesty, the situation on the eastern front is dire. Our soldiers are poorly equipped, lacking adequate weapons and supplies. The morale of the army is low due to heavy casualties and lack of proper food and clothing. I strongly recommend that the government immediately improve the supply of arms and ammunition, provide better food and medical facilities to our soldiers, and address the grievances of the civilian population. The people are suffering from food shortages and high prices. If we do not address these issues, we risk losing the support of the people and the army. I also suggest that some reforms be considered to give the people a voice in governance, as this might help unite the country in this time of war."
The third activity asks: Look again at Source A and Box 1. List five changes in the mood of the workers. From Source A, we can see that workers became more organized and started holding meetings, both legal and illegal. They formed "plugs" or groups to protect speakers during meetings. They became more vocal and started making speeches openly even in front of authorities. From Box 1, we see that women became more active and inspired their male co-workers. Workers showed solidarity by supporting each other during strikes. They were willing to sacrifice and stand up for their rights. They were ready to take collective action even if it meant facing police and authorities.
Then it asks: Place yourself in the position of a woman who has seen both situations and write an account of what has changed. Let me write this: "I have seen a great change in the mood of the workers. In the past, we used to work silently, afraid to speak up against the management. But now, we have learned that we have rights and we must fight for them. When Marfa Vasileva stopped work at the Lorenz factory, I saw how the entire workforce came together to support her. Women, who were always considered weaker, led the way. We are no longer afraid to speak out. We demand fair wages and decent working conditions. The atmosphere in the factories has changed completely. Workers now discuss their problems openly and are ready to take collective action. We feel a sense of unity and strength that we never felt before."
The fourth activity asks: Read the two views on the revolution in the countryside. Imagine yourself to be a witness to the events. Write a short account from the standpoint of an owner of an estate, a small peasant, and a journalist.
As an owner of an estate, I would say: "The events of October 1917 have turned my life upside down. The peasants who once worked on my land have now seized it. They have taken over my manor house, looted my property, and cut down my orchard. I am now left with just two cows and two horses. It is painful to see everything I built being destroyed. However, I must say that the chairman of the local committee has been polite and has assured me of my safety. I hope that somehow things will return to normal, but I fear that this is just the beginning."
As a small peasant, I would say: "For generations, we have worked on the land owned by the nobles. We never owned any land of our own. But now, thanks to the revolution, the land belongs to us. The news of the revolution reached our village and we were overjoyed. We seized the landowner's estate and distributed it among ourselves. Finally, we are free from the oppression of the nobles. We can now work on our own land and keep the produce for ourselves. This is the beginning of a new life for us."
As a journalist, I would say: "The October Revolution has brought about a dramatic change in the Russian countryside. The peasants, who for centuries were oppressed under the feudal system, have now risen up and seized the lands of the nobility. In some places, this has happened peacefully, while in others there has been violence and destruction. The revolution has given hope to the common people, but it has also created chaos and uncertainty. The future of Russia depends on how these new changes are managed. The world is watching closely to see what will emerge from this upheaval."
The fifth activity asks: Why did people in Central Asia respond to the Russian Revolution in different ways? Let me explain this. People in Central Asia responded differently because of their diverse experiences. Some welcomed the February Revolution because it freed them from the oppression of the Tsarist regime and gave them hope for autonomy. However, the October Revolution brought violence, pillage, taxes, and dictatorial power. Some groups, like the Kirgiz, initially welcomed the revolution because they thought it meant they would be masters of their own land again. But when the Bolsheviks imposed harsh policies, including discouraging nomadism, many became disillusioned. Some welcomed the revolution while others opposed it. The different responses were due to different experiences with Russian rule and different expectations from the revolution.
The sixth activity asks: Compare the passages written by Shaukat Usmani and Rabindranath Tagore. Read them in relation to Sources C, D, and E. What did Indians find impressive about the USSR? What did the writers fail to notice? Indians found impressive the equality and freedom in the USSR. Shaukat Usmani was impressed by how Europeans mixed freely with Asians and how people of different nationalities lived together in equality. He saw freedom in its true light and was moved by the confidence and fearlessness that the revolution had instilled in the people. Rabindranath Tagore was impressed by how the masses had come forward, how the peasants and workers had been empowered, and how the country had developed in a short time despite poverty. However, the writers failed to notice the hardships faced by the common people, the repression under the Bolshevik government, the famines, and the lack of basic freedoms. Sources C, D, and E show the harsh realities — children had to work in factories, people were arrested and executed for opposing the government, and peasants were forced into collective farms and faced severe hardships.
Now, let me answer the questions at the end of the chapter.
Question 1: What were the social, economic and political conditions in Russia before 1905?
Let me answer this. Socially, Russian society was divided. The majority of the population were peasants who worked on land owned by the nobility, the crown, and the Orthodox Church. There was a small but growing working class in factories. Workers faced long working hours, low wages, and poor living conditions. Women made up a significant portion of the factory workforce but were paid much less than men. Politically, Russia was an autocracy under the Tsar. The Tsar had absolute power and was not subject to parliament. There was no elected government, and political parties were illegal. Economically, Russia was largely agricultural with about 85 percent of the population engaged in farming. Industry was developing but was limited to certain areas like St. Petersburg and Moscow. Russia was a major exporter of grain. However, there were significant disparities in wealth, and the condition of peasants and workers was miserable.
Question 2: In what ways was the working population in Russia different from other countries in Europe, before 1917?
The working population in Russia was different in several ways. First, a much larger proportion of the population was engaged in agriculture — about 85 percent compared to 40-50 percent in France and Germany. Second, the industrial working class was relatively small and was divided by skill and gender. Women made up 31 percent of the factory workforce but were paid much less than men. Third, workers in Russia were closely linked to their villages and many maintained ties with their rural homes. Fourth, all political parties were illegal, so workers had no legal way to organize and demand their rights. Fifth, the conditions of workers were extremely harsh, with very long working hours in some places.
Question 3: Why did the Tsarist autocracy collapse in 1917?
The Tsarist autocracy collapsed in 1917 due to multiple factors. First, the First World War had devastated Russia. The war caused massive casualties, economic disruption, and food shortages. Second, the Tsar had refused to accept any reforms and continued to rule as an absolute monarch, ignoring the demands for constitutional government. Third, the February Revolution of 1917 was triggered by food shortages and harsh winter conditions. Workers and soldiers, who were already suffering, came out onto the streets. When the cavalry refused to fire on the demonstrators and the army mutinied, the Tsar lost all support. Fourth, the Tsar was isolated and out of touch with the reality faced by his people. When military commanders advised him to abdicate, he had no choice but to step down.
Question 4: Make two lists: one with the main events and the effects of the February Revolution and the other with the main events and effects of the October Revolution. Write a paragraph on who was involved in each, who were the leaders and what was the impact of each on Soviet history.
Let me make the first list for the February Revolution. Main events: In February 1917, workers in Petrograd went on strike, women led demonstrations on International Women's Day, the police and cavalry were called out, the cavalry refused to fire on demonstrators, army regiments mutinied, the Duma was suspended and then reinstated, the Tsar abdicated, and the Provisional Government was formed. Effects: The monarchy was abolished, Russia became a republic in name, the Provisional Government took over, Soviets were formed all over the country, and Russia continued to fight in the First World War. Who was involved: Workers, soldiers, women, and common people of Petrograd. Leaders: There was no single leader initially; it was a spontaneous uprising. Later, the Provisional Government was formed with leaders from the Duma. Impact: It ended centuries of Tsarist autocracy and paved the way for the October Revolution.
Now the second list for the October Revolution. Main events: In October 1917, Lenin returned and gave the April Theses, the Bolsheviks gained support among workers and soldiers, the Military Revolutionary Committee was formed, on 24 October the Bolsheviks seized key government buildings, the ship Aurora shelled the Winter Palace, the ministers surrendered, the All Russian Congress of Soviets approved the Bolshevik action. Effects: The Bolsheviks came to power, Russia withdrew from the war, banks and industries were nationalized, land was distributed to peasants, and the Civil War began. Who was involved: Bolsheviks, workers, soldiers, and the Military Revolutionary Committee under Leon Trotsky. Leaders: Vladimir Lenin and Leon Trotsky. Impact: It established the first socialist state in the world, led to the creation of the USSR, and inspired revolutions and communist parties across the world.
Now let me write a paragraph on who was involved in each, who were the leaders, and what was the impact of each on Soviet history. The February Revolution was a spontaneous uprising of workers, soldiers, and common people, particularly women, in Petrograd. It was not led by any single political party initially. The leaders who emerged included members of the Duma who formed the Provisional Government. The impact of the February Revolution was that it ended the Tsarist autocracy and established a provisional government, but it did not bring any fundamental change in the social and economic structure. The October Revolution was led by the Bolshevik Party under the leadership of Vladimir Lenin and Leon Trotsky. It involved the organized seizure of power by the Bolsheviks with the support of workers and soldiers. The impact was profound — it established the first socialist state, brought an end to private property, and initiated radical social and economic changes that would shape Soviet history for decades.
Question 5: What were the main changes brought about by the Bolsheviks immediately after the October Revolution?
The main changes brought about by the Bolsheviks immediately after the October Revolution were as follows. First, most industries and banks were nationalized, meaning the government took over ownership and management. Second, land was declared social property and peasants were allowed to seize the land of the nobility. Third, large houses in cities were divided among families according to their needs. Fourth, the old titles of aristocracy were banned. Fifth, the Bolshevik Party was renamed the Russian Communist Party. Sixth, elections were held for the Constituent Assembly, but when the Assembly rejected Bolshevik measures, Lenin dismissed it. Seventh, Russia made peace with Germany at Brest Litovsk. Eighth, Russia became a one-party state with the Bolsheviks as the only party. Ninth, the secret police, called the Cheka, was established to punish those who criticized the Bolsheviks.
Question 6: Write a few lines to show what you know about kulaks, the Duma, women workers between 1900 and 1930, the Liberals, and Stalin's collectivization programme.
Now let me answer each part.
Kulaks: Kulaks were well-to-do peasants in Russia who owned relatively larger farms and had some wealth. During collectivization in the late 1920s and early 1930s, Stalin targeted the kulaks as enemies of the state. They were accused of hoarding grain and exploiting poorer peasants. Many kulaks were deported, exiled, or executed. Their property was confiscated and they were forced to join collective farms.
The Duma: The Duma was an elected consultative Parliament created by the Tsar in 1905 after the revolution. It was the first time that any form of elected representation was allowed in Russia. However, the Tsar had the power to dismiss the Duma, and the first two Dumas were dismissed quickly when they tried to question the Tsar's authority. The voting laws were changed to ensure that the Duma was packed with conservative politicians.
Women workers between 1900 and 1930: Women workers played a crucial role in the Russian Revolution. In 1914, women made up 31 percent of the factory labor force. They were paid much less than men, often between half and three-quarters of a man's wage. Women led strikes, such as the one at the Lorenz telephone factory in 1917. After the revolution, women were encouraged to work in factories, and crèches were established for their children. However, they continued to face discrimination and unequal pay.
The Liberals: Liberals in nineteenth-century Europe wanted a nation that tolerated all religions and opposed the uncontrolled power of dynastic rulers. They wanted representative, elected parliamentary government with an independent judiciary. However, they did not believe in universal adult franchise and wanted the vote to be limited to men of property. They were not in favor of women's suffrage. In Russia, liberals campaigned for a constitution and worked with other groups during the 1905 Revolution.
Stalin's collectivization programme: Stalin's collectivization programme was implemented from 1929 onwards. It forced all peasants to join collective farms called kolkhozes. The land and implements were transferred to the ownership of the collective farms. Peasants who resisted were severely punished — many were deported, exiled, or executed. The programme led to massive disruption, destruction of livestock, and a devastating famine in 1930-1933 in which over 4 million people died. Despite the hardships, collectivization was intended to modernize agriculture and increase production, but it initially led to decline in output.
Now, students, we have covered the entire chapter. Let me now give you a complete summary of everything we have learned in this lesson.
In this chapter, we learned about the age of social change in Europe after the French Revolution. We learned about the three main political traditions: conservatives who wanted slow change, liberals who wanted religious tolerance and representative government but only for property owners, and radicals who wanted government by the majority and were against concentration of wealth. We learned about the Industrial Revolution and its impact on society, and how it led to the growth of socialist ideas.
We then learned about socialism and the ideas of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, who argued that workers must overthrow capitalism and establish a communist society. We saw how socialist parties formed across Europe and how they gained support among workers.
Then we turned to Russia. We learned about the Russian Empire in 1914, its economy and society, and how socialists organized in Russia. We learned about the 1905 Revolution and Bloody Sunday. We learned about the causes and events of the February Revolution of 1917, when the monarchy was overthrown, and the Provisional Government was formed.
We then learned about Lenin's return and his April Theses, and how the Bolsheviks gradually gained support. We learned about the October Revolution of 1917, when the Bolsheviks seized power in a well-organized uprising.
After the October Revolution, we learned about the changes brought about by the Bolsheviks: nationalization of industry and banks, distribution of land to peasants, and the establishment of a one-party state. We learned about the Civil War and the formation of the USSR. We learned about the Five Year Plans and the development of the Soviet economy. We learned about Stalin's collectivization programme and its devastating effects, including the famine of the early 1930s.
Finally, we learned about the global influence of the Russian Revolution and how it inspired people in India and across the world. We learned about the writings of Indian visitors to the USSR like Shaukat Usmani and Rabindranath Tagore.
This, students, is the complete story of socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution. This is one of the most important chapters in your history textbook because it tells the story of how a new idea — socialism — changed the world. It led to the creation of the Soviet Union, influenced revolutions across the globe, and shaped the twentieth century. Even today, the ideas of socialism continue to influence politics and society around the world.
Thank you for listening so patiently. I hope you have understood all the concepts clearly. Remember, history is not just about memorizing dates and events — it is about understanding how the world changed and why. See you in the next class. Good day!