So students, welcome to today's history lesson. I am so happy to be here with you to learn about a very interesting and important chapter from your history textbook. Today's chapter is titled "Pastoralists in the Modern World" and it is Chapter 5 of your book.
Now, let me ask you something. Have you ever seen people moving with their herds of goats, sheep, or cattle? Perhaps on the roads near your village or town? Have you ever wondered who they are, where they are coming from, and where they are headed? What do they eat? How do they earn their living? What is their life like? Well, students, this chapter is all about these fascinating people whom we call pastoralists. They are people who do not live in one place but move from one area to another to earn their living by herding animals.
Before we begin, I want you to understand why this chapter is so important. You see, in most history textbooks, we learn about kings and queens, about battles and empires, about farmers and factory workers. But rarely do we read about pastoralists. It is as if their lives do not matter, as if they are people from the past who have no place in modern society. But that is not true at all. Pastoralists have been an important part of our society for centuries, and they continue to exist even today. In this chapter, we will see how pastoralism has been important in India and Africa, how colonialism impacted their lives, and how they have coped with the pressures of the modern world. So let's begin our journey, shall we?
Let us start by understanding what pastoralists do and how they live. We will first look at pastoral communities in the mountains of India.
## 1. Pastoral Nomads and their Movements
### 1.1 In the Mountains
Students, let us travel to the beautiful mountains of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttarakhand. In these regions, even today, we can find pastoral communities who move with their herds according to the seasons.
Let me tell you about the Gujjar Bakarwals of Jammu and Kashmir. They are great herders of goats and sheep. Many of them migrated to this region in the nineteenth century in search of pastures for their animals. Over the decades, they established themselves in the area and began moving annually between their summer and winter grazing grounds. In winter, when the high mountains are covered with snow, they live with their herds in the low hills of the Siwalik range. The dry scrub forests there provide pasture for their herds. By the end of April, they begin their northern march to their summer grazing grounds. Several households come together for this journey, forming what is known as a kafila. They cross the Pir Panjal passes and enter the valley of Kashmir. With the onset of summer, the snow melts and the mountainsides become lush green. The variety of grasses that sprout provide rich nutritious forage for the animal herds. By the end of September, the Bakarwals are on the move again, this time on their downward journey, back to their winter base. When the high mountains are covered with snow, the herds are grazed in the low hills.
Now students, this is what we call seasonal migration. They move from one place to another according to the season because different places have different types of pasture available at different times of the year. Isn't that interesting?
In a different area of the mountains, the Gaddi shepherds of Himachal Pradesh have a similar cycle of seasonal movement. They too spend their winter in the low hills of the Siwalik range, grazing their flocks in scrub forests. By April, they move north and spend the summer in Lahul and Spiti. When the snow melts and the high passes are clear, many of them move on to higher mountain meadows. By September, they begin their return movement. On the way, they stop once again in the villages of Lahul and Spiti, reaping their summer harvest and sowing their winter crop. Then they descend with their flock to their winter grazing ground on the Siwalik hills. Next April, once again, they begin their march with their goats and sheep to the summer meadows.
Further to the east, in Garhwal and Kumaon, the Gujjar cattle herders come down to the dry forests of the bhabar in the winter and go up to the high meadows, the bugyals, in summer. Many of them were originally from Jammu and came to the Uttar Pradesh hills in the nineteenth century in search of good pastures.
Now students, let me explain what these terms mean. Bhabar is a dry forested area below the foothills of Garhwal and Kumaon. Bugyal is a vast meadow in the high mountains, usually above 12,000 feet. These bugyals are under snow in the winter and come to life after April. At this time, the entire mountainside is covered with a variety of grasses, roots, and herbs. By monsoon, these pastures are thick with vegetation and carpeted with wild flowers. Beautiful, isn't it?
This pattern of cyclical movement between summer and winter pastures was typical of many pastoral communities of the Himalayas, including the Bhotiyas, Sherpas, and Kinnauris. All of them had to adjust to seasonal changes and make effective use of available pastures in different places. When the pasture was exhausted or unusable in one place, they moved their herds and flocks to new areas. This continuous movement also allowed the pastures to recover and prevented their overuse. So you see, students, this movement is not just good for the animals, but also good for the environment. It helps the grass and plants to grow back.
Now, let me share with you what an English official named G.C. Barnes wrote in the 1850s about the Gujjars of Kangra. He said: "In the hills the Gujjars are exclusively a pastoral tribe – they cultivate scarcely at all. The Gaddis keep flocks of sheep and goats and the Gujjars' wealth consists of buffaloes. These people live in the skirts of the forests, and maintain their existence exclusively by the sale of the milk, ghee, and other produce of their herds. The men graze the cattle, and frequently lie out for weeks in the woods tending their herds. The women repair to the markets every morning with baskets on their heads, with little earthen pots filled with milk, butter-milk and ghee, each of these pots containing the proportion required for a day's meal. During the hot weather the Gujjars usually drive their herds to the upper range, where the buffaloes rejoice in the rich grass which the rains bring forth and at the same time attain condition from the temperate climate and the immunity from venomous flies that torment their existence in the plains."
So students, notice how the work is divided in pastoral households. The men take care of grazing the cattle, often sleeping out in the woods for weeks. The women go to the market every morning to sell milk, buttermilk, and ghee. This division of labor is very important for understanding how pastoral families function.
Now, let me recap what we have learned so far. We learned that pastoralists are people who move from place to place with their herds of animals. In the mountains, communities like the Gujjar Bakarwals, Gaddis, and Gujjars move between summer and winter pastures according to the seasons. This movement helps them find fresh pasture for their animals and also allows the land to recover. The men and women in these communities have different roles to play. Men graze the animals, while women often sell the dairy products in the market.
Now let us move from the mountains to other parts of India.
### 1.2 On the Plateaus, Plains and Deserts
Students, not all pastoralists live in the mountains. They are also found in the plateaus, plains, and deserts of India.
Let us start with Maharashtra. The Dhangars were an important pastoral community of Maharashtra. In the early twentieth century, their population in this region was estimated to be 467,000. Most of them were shepherds, some were blanket weavers, and still others were buffalo herders. The Dhangar shepherds stayed in the central plateau of Maharashtra during the monsoon. This was a semi-arid region with low rainfall and poor soil. It was covered with thorny scrub. Nothing but dry crops like bajra could be sown here. In the monsoon, this tract became a vast grazing ground for the Dhangar flocks. By October, the Dhangars harvested their bajra and started on their move west. After a march of about a month, they reached the Konkan. This was a flourishing agricultural tract with high rainfall and rich soil. Here, the shepherds were welcomed by Konkani peasants. After the kharif harvest was cut at this time, the fields had to be fertilised and made ready for the rabi harvest. Dhangar flocks manured the fields and fed on the stubble. The Konkani peasants also gave supplies of rice which the shepherds took back to the plateau where grain was scarce. With the onset of the monsoon, the Dhangars left the Konkan and the coastal areas with their flocks and returned to their settlements on the dry plateau. The sheep could not tolerate the wet monsoon conditions.
Now students, let me explain some terms. Kharif is the autumn crop, usually harvested between September and October. Rabi is the spring crop, usually harvested after March. Stubble refers to the lower ends of grain stalks left in the ground after harvesting. So you see, the Dhangars provided a service to the farmers in the Konkan region by fertilising their fields with manure from their flocks, and in return, they received rice and were able to graze their animals on the stubble. This was a mutually beneficial relationship.
In Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, again, the dry central plateau was covered with stone and grass, inhabited by cattle, goat, and sheep herders. The Gollas herded cattle. The Kurumas and Kurubas reared sheep and goats and sold woven blankets. They lived near the woods, cultivated small patches of land, engaged in a variety of petty trades, and took care of their herds. Unlike the mountain pastoralists, it was not the cold and the snow that defined the seasonal rhythms of their movement: rather, it was the alternation of the monsoon and dry season. In the dry season, they moved to the coastal tracts, and left when the rains came. Only buffaloes liked the swampy, wet conditions of the coastal areas during the monsoon months. Other herds had to be shifted to the dry plateau at this time.
Now students, let me share with you what a traveler named Francis Hamilton Buchanan wrote in the early nineteenth century about the Gollas during his travel through Mysore. He said: "Their families live in small villages near the skirt of the woods, where they cultivate a little ground, and keep some of their cattle, selling in the towns the produce of the dairy. Their families are very numerous, seven to eight young men in each being common. Two or three of these attend the flocks in the woods, while the remainder cultivate their fields, and supply the towns with firewood, and with straw for thatch."
This tells us that pastoral families often combined different activities. Some members looked after the herds, while others cultivated land or engaged in other trades. This diversification helped them earn a living.
Now, there were also the Banjaras, who were well-known graziers. They were to be found in the villages of Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra. In search of good pastureland for their cattle, they moved over long distances, selling plough cattle and other goods to villagers in exchange for grain and fodder.
In the deserts of Rajasthan lived the Raikas. The rainfall in the region was meagre and uncertain. On cultivated land, harvests fluctuated every year. Over vast stretches, no crop could be grown. So the Raikas combined cultivation with pastoralism. During the monsoons, the Raikas of Barmer, Jaisalmer, Jodhpur, and Bikaner stayed in their home villages, where pasture was available. By October, when these grazing grounds were dry and exhausted, they moved out in search of other pasture and water, and returned again during the next monsoon. One group of Raikas, known as the Maru Raikas, herded camels, and another group reared sheep and goat.
So students, as you can see, the life of these pastoral groups was sustained by a careful consideration of a host of factors. They had to judge how long the herds could stay in one area and know where they could find water and pasture. They needed to calculate the timing of their movements and ensure that they could move through different territories. They had to set up a relationship with farmers on the way so that the herds could graze in harvested fields and manure the soil. They combined a range of different activities, cultivation, trade, and herding, to make their living.
Now, let me pause here and ask you to think about the in-text activity. The textbook asks you to write briefly about what the sources tell you about the nature of the work undertaken by men and women in pastoral households, and why do you think pastoral groups often live on the edges of forests?
From what we have learned, we can see that in pastoral households, men usually graze the cattle and look after the herds, often sleeping out in the woods for weeks. Women take care of the dairy products and sell them in the market. They also do other household work. As for why pastoral groups live on the edges of forests, it is because forests provide pasture for their animals, and they can also collect firewood and other forest products. Living on the edges allows them to access both the forest and the agricultural lands nearby.
Now students, let us move on to an important part of this chapter. We will now learn about how the lives of pastoralists changed under colonial rule.
## 2. Colonial Rule and Pastoral Life
Students, when the British came to India, they brought many changes to the way the country was governed. These changes affected all sections of society, including the pastoralists. Under colonial rule, the life of pastoralists changed dramatically. Their grazing grounds shrank, their movements were regulated, and the revenue they had to pay increased. Their agricultural stock declined and their trades and crafts were adversely affected. Let us understand how this happened.
First, the colonial state wanted to transform all grazing lands into cultivated farms. Land revenue was one of the main sources of its finance. By expanding cultivation, it could increase its revenue collection. It could at the same time produce more jute, cotton, wheat, and other agricultural produce that were required in England. To colonial officials, all uncultivated land appeared to be unproductive: it produced neither revenue nor agricultural produce. It was seen as "waste land" that needed to be brought under cultivation. From the mid-nineteenth century, Waste Land Rules were enacted in various parts of the country. By these Rules, uncultivated lands were taken over and given to select individuals. These individuals were granted various concessions and encouraged to settle these lands. Some of them were made headmen of villages in the newly cleared areas. In most areas, the lands taken over were actually grazing tracts used regularly by pastoralists. So expansion of cultivation inevitably meant the decline of pastures and a problem for pastoralists.
Second, by the mid-nineteenth century, various Forest Acts were also being enacted in the different provinces. Through these Acts, some forests which produced commercially valuable timber like deodar or sal were declared "Reserved." No pastoralist was allowed access to these forests. Other forests were classified as "Protected." In these, some customary grazing rights of pastoralists were granted, but their movements were severely restricted. The colonial officials believed that grazing destroyed the saplings and young shoots of trees that germinated on the forest floor. The herds trampled over the saplings and munched away the shoots. This prevented new trees from growing.
These Forest Acts changed the lives of pastoralists. They were now prevented from entering many forests that had earlier provided valuable forage for their cattle. Even in the areas they were allowed entry, their movements were regulated. They needed a permit for entry. The timing of their entry and departure was specified, and the number of days they could spend in the forest was limited. Pastoralists could no longer remain in an area even if forage was available, the grass was succulent, and the undergrowth in the forest was ample. They had to move because the Forest Department permits that had been issued to them now ruled their lives. The permit specified the periods in which they could be legally within a forest. If they overstayed, they were liable to fines.
Third, British officials were suspicious of nomadic people. They distrusted mobile craftsmen and traders who hawked their goods in villages, and pastoralists who changed their places of residence every season, moving in search of good pastures for their herds. The colonial government wanted to rule over a settled population. They wanted the rural people to live in villages, in fixed places with fixed rights on particular fields. Such a population was easy to identify and control. Those who were settled were seen as peaceable and law-abiding; those who were nomadic were considered to be criminal. In 1871, the colonial government in India passed the Criminal Tribes Act. By this Act, many communities of craftsmen, traders, and pastoralists were classified as Criminal Tribes. They were stated to be criminal by nature and birth. Once this Act came into force, these communities were expected to live only in notified village settlements. They were not allowed to move out without a permit. The village police kept a continuous watch on them.
Fourth, to expand its revenue income, the colonial government looked for every possible source of taxation. So tax was imposed on land, on canal water, on salt, on trade goods, and even on animals. Pastoralists had to pay tax on every animal they grazed on the pastures. In most pastoral tracts of India, grazing tax was introduced in the mid-nineteenth century. The tax per head of cattle went up rapidly and the system of collection was made increasingly efficient. In the decades between the 1850s and 1880s, the right to collect the tax was auctioned out to contractors. These contractors tried to extract as high a tax as they could to recover the money they had paid to the state and earn as much profit as they could within the year. By the 1880s, the government began collecting taxes directly from the pastoralists. Each of them was given a pass. To enter a grazing tract, a cattle herder had to show the pass and pay the tax. The number of cattle heads he had and the amount of tax he paid was entered on the pass.
Now students, let me share with you what H.S. Gibson, the Deputy Conservator of Forests in Darjeeling, wrote in 1913. He said: "... forest which is used for grazing cannot be used for any other purpose and is unable to yield timber and fuel, which are the main legitimate forest produce..." This shows how the colonial officials viewed grazing as incompatible with forest conservation. They saw forests mainly as sources of timber and fuel, not as lands that could be used for grazing.
Now, there is an activity in your textbook that asks you to write a comment on the closure of the forests to grazing from the standpoint of a forester and a pastoralist. Let me help you understand this.
From the standpoint of a forester, closing forests to grazing would be seen as beneficial because it would protect the saplings and young trees from being trampled and eaten by cattle. This would help in the growth of new forests and ensure a good supply of timber and fuel in the future. The forester would argue that grazing prevents the natural regeneration of forests.
From the standpoint of a pastoralist, however, the closure of forests would be a disaster. It would mean the loss of valuable pasture for their animals. They would have to find new grazing grounds, which might be difficult to find. Their animals might not get enough food, leading to malnutrition and death. The pastoralist would argue that they have been using these forests for generations and that their grazing actually helps maintain the grassland ecosystem.
Now, let me share with you what the Royal Commission on Agriculture reported in the 1920s. It said: "The extent of the area available for grazing has gone down tremendously with the extension of area under cultivation because of increasing population, extension of irrigation facilities, acquiring the pastures for Government purposes, for example, defence, industries and agricultural experimental farms. [Now] breeders find it difficult to raise large herds. Thus their earnings have gone down. The quality of their livestock has deteriorated, dietary standards have fallen and indebtedness has increased."
This shows clearly how the changes brought about by colonial rule affected the pastoralists negatively.
Now students, there is another activity in your textbook. It asks you to imagine that you are living in the 1890s and you belong to a community of nomadic pastoralists and craftsmen. You learn that the Government has declared your community as a Criminal Tribe. You need to describe briefly what you would have felt and done, and write a petition to the local collector explaining why the Act is unjust and how it will affect your life.
Let me help you think about this. If your community was declared a Criminal Tribe, you would feel angry, helpless, and frustrated. Your family has been following your traditional occupation for generations, and now you are being treated like a criminal. You would feel that your dignity and reputation have been unfairly damaged. You would also worry about how you will earn your living, as the Act restricts your movement and makes it difficult to continue your traditional work.
In your petition to the collector, you would explain that your community has been pastoralists for generations. You have never committed any crime. Your movement from place to place is necessary for your livelihood, as you need to find pasture for your animals. You would argue that the Criminal Tribes Act is unjust because it treats innocent people as criminals simply because of their traditional way of life. You would explain that the Act will destroy your livelihood, force you into poverty, and break up your families and communities.
Now, let us understand how these changes affected the lives of pastoralists.
### 2.1 How Did these Changes Affect the Lives of Pastoralists?
Students, these measures led to a serious shortage of pastures. When grazing lands were taken over and turned into cultivated fields, the available area of pastureland declined. Similarly, the reservation of forests meant that shepherds and cattle herders could no longer freely pasture their cattle in the forests.
As pasturelands disappeared under the plough, the existing animal stock had to feed on whatever grazing land remained. This led to continuous intensive grazing of these pastures. Usually, nomadic pastoralists grazed their animals in one area and moved to another area. These pastoral movements allowed time for the natural restoration of vegetation growth. When restrictions were imposed on pastoral movements, grazing lands came to be continuously used, and the quality of pastures declined. This in turn created a further shortage of forage for animals and the deterioration of animal stock. Underfed cattle died in large numbers during scarcities and famines.
### 2.2 How Did the Pastoralists Cope with these Changes?
Students, pastoralists reacted to these changes in a variety of ways. Some reduced the number of cattle in their herds since there was not enough pasture to feed large numbers. Others discovered new pastures when movement to old grazing grounds became difficult. After 1947, the camel and sheep herding Raikas, for instance, could no longer move into Sindh and graze their camels on the banks of the Indus, as they had done earlier. The new political boundaries between India and Pakistan stopped their movement. So they had to find new places to go. In recent years, they have been migrating to Haryana where sheep can graze on agricultural fields after the harvests are cut. This is the time that the fields need manure that the animals provide.
Over the years, some richer pastoralists began buying land and settling down, giving up their nomadic life. Some became settled peasants cultivating land, others took to more extensive trading. Many poor pastoralists, on the other hand, borrowed money from moneylenders to survive. At times they lost their cattle and sheep and became labourers, working on fields or in small towns.
Yet, pastoralists not only continue to survive, in many regions their numbers have expanded over recent decades. When pasturelands in one place were closed to them, they changed the direction of their movement, reduced the size of the herd, combined pastoral activity with other forms of income, and adapted to the changes in the modern world. Many ecologists believe that in dry regions and in the mountains, pastoralism is still ecologically the most viable form of life.
Now students, let me recap what we have learned in this section. We learned that under colonial rule, the lives of pastoralists changed dramatically. The British brought in Waste Land Rules, Forest Acts, the Criminal Tribes Act, and grazing taxes. All these measures reduced the grazing lands available to pastoralists, restricted their movements, and increased their financial burden. Pastoralists had to adapt by changing their migration routes, reducing their herd sizes, or giving up pastoralism altogether. However, many pastoral communities continue to exist even today, proving their resilience.
Now, let us move to the next section of the chapter, where we will learn about pastoralism in Africa.
## 3. Pastoralism in Africa
Students, let us now move to Africa, where over half the world's pastoral population lives. Even today, over 22 million Africans depend on some form of pastoral activity for their livelihood. They include communities like Bedouins, Berbers, Maasai, Somali, Boran, and Turkana. Most of them now live in the semi-arid grasslands or arid deserts where rainfed agriculture is difficult. They raise cattle, camels, goats, sheep, and donkeys, and they sell milk, meat, animal skin, and wool. Some also earn through trade and transport, others combine pastoral activity with agriculture, still others do a variety of odd jobs to supplement their meagre and uncertain earnings from pastoralism.
Like pastoralists in India, the lives of African pastoralists have changed dramatically over the colonial and post-colonial periods. Let us discuss some of these changes by looking at one pastoral community, the Maasai, in some detail.
The Maasai cattle herders live primarily in east Africa: 300,000 in southern Kenya and another 150,000 in Tanzania. We will see how new laws and regulations took away their land and restricted their movement. This affected their lives in times of drought and even reshaped their social relationships.
### 3.1 Where have the Grazing Lands Gone?
One of the problems the Maasais have faced is the continuous loss of their grazing lands. Before colonial times, Maasailand stretched over a vast area from north Kenya to the steppes of northern Tanzania. In the late nineteenth century, European imperial powers scrambled for territorial possessions in Africa, slicing up the region into different colonies. In 1885, Maasailand was cut into half with an international boundary between British Kenya and German Tanganyika. Subsequently, the best grazing lands were gradually taken over for white settlement, and the Maasai were pushed into a small area in south Kenya and north Tanzania. The Maasai lost about 60 per cent of their pre-colonial lands. They were confined to an arid zone with uncertain rainfall and poor pastures.
From the late nineteenth century, the British colonial government in east Africa also encouraged local peasant communities to expand cultivation. As cultivation expanded, pasturelands were turned into cultivated fields. In pre-colonial times, the Maasai pastoralists had dominated their agricultural neighbours both economically and politically. By the end of colonial rule, the situation had reversed.
Large areas of grazing land were also turned into game reserves like the Maasai Mara and Samburu National Park in Kenya and Serengeti Park in Tanzania. Pastoralists were not allowed to enter these reserves; they could neither hunt animals nor graze their herds in these areas. Very often, these reserves were in areas that had traditionally been regular grazing grounds for Maasai herds. The Serengeti National Park, for instance, was created over 14,760 square kilometers of Maasai grazing land.
Now students, you should know that Tanganyika was originally German East Africa. Britain conquered it during the First World War. In 1919, Tanganyika came under British control. It attained independence in 1961 and united with Zanzibar to form Tanzania in 1964.
Now, let me share with you what pastoral communities elsewhere in Africa faced. In Namibia, in south-west Africa, the Kaokoland herders traditionally moved between Kaokoland and nearby Ovamboland, and they sold skin, meat, and other trade products in neighbouring markets. All this was stopped with the new system of territorial boundaries that restricted movements between regions.
The nomadic cattle herders of Kaokoland in Namibia complained: "We have difficulty. We cry. We are imprisoned. We do not know why we are locked up. We are in jail. We have no place to live… We cannot get meat from the south… Our sleeping skins cannot be sent out… Ovamboland is closed for us. We lived in Ovamboland for a long time. We want to take our cattle there, also our sheep and goats. The borders are closed. The borders press us heavily. We cannot live."
This statement shows how the new borders and restrictions affected the lives of pastoralists in Africa, just as they did in India.
### 3.2 The Borders are Closed
Students, in the nineteenth century, African pastoralists could move over vast areas in search of pastures. When the pastures were exhausted in one place, they moved to a different area to graze their cattle. From the late nineteenth century, the colonial government began imposing various restrictions on their mobility.
Like the Maasai, other pastoral groups were also forced to live within the confines of special reserves. The boundaries of these reserves became the limits within which they could now move. They were not allowed to move out with their stock without special permits. And it was difficult to get permits without trouble and harassment. Those found guilty of disobeying the rules were severely punished.
Pastoralists were also not allowed to enter the markets in white areas. In many regions, they were prohibited from participating in any form of trade. White settlers and European colonists saw pastoralists as dangerous and savage, people with whom all contact had to be minimised. Cutting off all links was, however, never really possible, because white colonists had to depend on black labour to bore mines and build roads and towns.
The new territorial boundaries and restrictions imposed on them suddenly changed the lives of pastoralists. This adversely affected both their pastoral and trading activities. Earlier, pastoralists not only looked after animal herds but traded in various products. The restrictions under colonial rule did not entirely stop their trading activities, but they were now subject to various restrictions.
### 3.3 When Pastures Dry
Students, drought affects the life of pastoralists everywhere. When rains fail and pastures are dry, cattle are likely to starve unless they can be moved to areas where forage is available. That is why, traditionally, pastoralists are nomadic; they move from place to place. This nomadism allows them to survive bad times and avoid crises.
But from the colonial period, the Maasai were bound down to a fixed area, confined within a reserve, and prohibited from moving in search of pastures. They were cut off from the best grazing lands and forced to live within a semi-arid tract prone to frequent droughts. Since they could not shift their cattle to places where pastures were available, large numbers of Maasai cattle died of starvation and disease in these years of drought. An enquiry in 1930 showed that the Maasai in Kenya possessed 720,000 cattle, 820,000 sheep, and 171,000 donkeys. In just two years of severe drought, 1933 and 1934, over half the cattle in the Maasai Reserve died.
As the area of grazing lands shrank, the adverse effect of the droughts increased in intensity. The frequent bad years led to a steady decline of the animal stock of the pastoralists.
### 3.4 Not All were Equally Affected
Students, in Maasailand, as elsewhere in Africa, not all pastoralists were equally affected by the changes in the colonial period. In pre-colonial times, Maasai society was divided into two social categories, elders and warriors. The elders formed the ruling group and met in periodic councils to decide on the affairs of the community and settle disputes. The warriors consisted of younger people, mainly responsible for the protection of the tribe. They defended the community and organised cattle raids. Raiding was important in a society where cattle was wealth. It is through raids that the power of different pastoral groups was asserted. Young men came to be recognised as members of the warrior class when they proved their manliness by raiding the cattle of other pastoral groups and participating in wars. They, however, were subject to the authority of the elders.
To administer the affairs of the Maasai, the British introduced a series of measures that had important implications. They appointed chiefs of different sub-groups of Maasai, who were made responsible for the affairs of the tribe. The British imposed various restrictions on raiding and warfare. Consequently, the traditional authority of both elders and warriors was adversely affected.
The chiefs appointed by the colonial government often accumulated wealth over time. They had a regular income with which they could buy animals, goods, and land. They lent money to poor neighbours who needed cash to pay taxes. Many of them began living in towns and became involved in trade. Their wives and children stayed back in the villages to look after the animals. These chiefs managed to survive the devastations of war and drought. They had both pastoral and non-pastoral income and could buy animals when their stock was depleted.
But the life history of the poor pastoralists who depended only on their livestock was different. Most often, they did not have the resources to tide over bad times. In times of war and famine, they lost nearly everything. They had to go looking for work in the towns. Some eked out a living as charcoal burners, others did odd jobs. The lucky could get more regular work in road or building construction.
The social changes in Maasai society occurred at two levels. First, the traditional difference based on age, between the elders and warriors, was disturbed, though it did not break down entirely. Second, a new distinction between the wealthy and poor pastoralists developed.
## Conclusion
Students, now we have come to the end of this chapter. Let us summarize what we have learned.
We saw that pastoral communities in different parts of the world are affected in a variety of different ways by changes in the modern world. New laws and new borders affect the patterns of their movement. With increasing restrictions on their mobility, pastoralists find it difficult to move in search of pastures. As pasture lands disappear, grazing becomes a problem, while pastures that remain deteriorate through continuous overgrazing. Times of drought become times of crises when cattle die in large numbers.
Yet, pastoralists do adapt to new times. They change the paths of their annual movement, reduce their cattle numbers, press for rights to enter new areas, exert political pressure on the government for relief, subsidy, and other forms of support, and demand a right in the management of forests and water resources. Pastoralists are not relics of the past. They are not people who have no place in the modern world. Environmentalists and economists have increasingly come to recognise that pastoral nomadism is a form of life that is perfectly suited to many hilly and dry regions of the world.
Now, let us go through the questions at the end of the chapter and answer them together.
## Questions
**Question 1: Explain why nomadic tribes need to move from one place to another. What are the advantages to the environment of this continuous movement?**
Students, nomadic tribes need to move from one place to another because they need to find fresh pasture for their animals. When animals graze in one area for too long, the grass and plants get exhausted. By moving to a new area, they allow the previous grazing land to recover. This continuous movement also helps prevent overgrazing, which can lead to soil erosion and degradation. Additionally, different areas have different types of forage available at different times of the year, so moving allows the animals to access nutritious food throughout the year. The advantages to the environment are that the pastures get time to regenerate, the soil is protected from erosion, and the ecosystem remains balanced.
**Question 2: Discuss why the colonial government in India brought in the following laws. In each case, explain how the law changed the lives of pastoralists:**
**a) Waste Land Rules**
The colonial government brought in Waste Land Rules because they wanted to increase their revenue by bringing more land under cultivation. They saw uncultivated land as "waste land" that was not producing anything useful. By taking over these lands and giving them to select individuals, they could collect revenue from them. This changed the lives of pastoralists because the grazing lands they had been using for generations were taken away and turned into farms. They lost access to traditional pastures, which made it difficult to feed their animals.
**b) Forest Acts**
The Forest Acts were brought in to protect forests and ensure a steady supply of timber and fuel. Some forests were declared "Reserved," where no one was allowed to graze their animals. Others were classified as "Protected," where grazing was allowed but strictly regulated. This changed the lives of pastoralists because they could no longer freely use forests for grazing. They needed permits to enter, and their movements were restricted in terms of timing and duration. Many forests that had traditionally provided valuable forage were closed off to them.
**c) Criminal Tribes Act**
The Criminal Tribes Act was brought in because the British were suspicious of nomadic people. They wanted a settled population that was easy to identify and control. Pastoralists who moved from place to place were seen as potentially criminal. This Act classified many communities, including pastoralists, as "Criminal Tribes." They were expected to live only in notified villages and could not move without a permit. The police kept a watch on them. This changed the lives of pastoralists by restricting their movement, damaging their reputation, and making it difficult to continue their traditional way of life.
**d) Grazing Tax**
The colonial government imposed grazing tax to increase their revenue. Pastoralists had to pay tax for every animal they grazed on the pastures. The tax per head of cattle went up rapidly over time. This changed the lives of pastoralists by increasing their financial burden. Many had to reduce the number of animals in their herds because they could not afford to pay the tax. Some fell into debt and lost their animals.
**Question 3: Give reasons to explain why the Maasai community lost their grazing lands.**
Students, the Maasai lost their grazing lands for several reasons. First, in 1885, Maasailand was divided between British Kenya and German Tanganyika by an international boundary. This cut off their traditional grazing areas. Second, the best grazing lands were taken over for white settlement. The Maasai were pushed into a small area in south Kenya and north Tanzania. Third, the British encouraged local peasant communities to expand cultivation, which turned pasturelands into farmed fields. Fourth, large areas were turned into game reserves like the Maasai Mara and Serengeti National Park, where pastoralists were not allowed to enter. As a result, the Maasai lost about 60 per cent of their pre-colonial lands and were confined to an arid zone with uncertain rainfall and poor pastures.
**Question 4: There are many similarities in the way in which the modern world forced changes in the lives of pastoral communities in India and East Africa. Write about any two examples of changes which were similar for Indian pastoralists and the Maasai herders.**
Students, there are several similarities between the changes faced by Indian pastoralists and the Maasai. Let me give you two examples.
First, both Indian pastoralists and the Maasai lost their grazing lands due to the expansion of cultivation and the creation of reserves. In India, the Waste Land Rules and Forest Acts led to the reduction of pastures. In East Africa, the British encouraged cultivation and created game reserves like the Serengeti, which took over traditional Maasai grazing lands. In both cases, the land available for grazing decreased significantly.
Second, both Indian pastoralists and the Maasai faced restrictions on their movement. In India, the Forest Acts required permits for grazing, and the Criminal Tribes Act restricted the movement of nomadic communities. In East Africa, the Maasai were confined to reserves and needed permits to move out. They were also prevented from entering white settlement areas and markets. These restrictions made it difficult for them to follow their traditional pastoral lifestyle.
Now students, let us also look at the activities given at the end of the chapter.
**Activity 1: Imagine that it is 1950 and you are a 60-year-old Raika herder living in post-Independence India. You are telling your grand-daughter about the changes which have taken place in your lifestyle after Independence. What would you say?**
Students, as a 60-year-old Raika herder in 1950, you would tell your grand-daughter about how life has changed since the British left. You might say something like: "My child, when I was your age, we could move freely with our herds across vast areas. We used to go to Sindh to graze our camels on the banks of the Indus. But after Partition, the borders closed, and we could no longer go there. We had to find new places to graze our animals. The British also took away many of our grazing lands and imposed taxes on us. Life was very difficult. Now, after Independence, we hope things will get better. The government is starting to recognize our rights, and we are trying to adapt to the new world."
**Activity 2: Imagine that you have been asked by a famous magazine to write an article about the life and customs of the Maasai in pre-colonial Africa. Write the article, giving it an interesting title.**
Students, you could write an article with a title like "The Proud Maasai: Masters of the East African Savanna" or "Life among the Maasai: A Journey into Pre-Colonial Africa." In the article, you would describe how the Maasai lived before the colonial period. You would talk about their seasonal migrations in search of pasture, their social structure with elders and warriors, their cattle raids, their diet of milk and meat, and their close relationship with their animals. You would also describe their traditions, customs, and beliefs.
**Activity 3: Find out more about some of the pastoral communities marked in Figs. 11 and 13.**
Students, this activity asks you to research more about the pastoral communities mentioned in the maps in your textbook. You can look up information about the Gujjar Bakarwals, Gaddis, Dhangars, Raikas, and other communities in India, and the Maasai, Somali, and other communities in Africa. You can use the internet, library books, or ask your teachers and family members who might have information about these communities.
Now students, we have covered the entire chapter. Let me give you a brief summary of everything we have learned.
## Summary
In this chapter, we learned about pastoralists, who are people who move from place to place with their herds of animals to earn their living. We studied pastoral communities in the mountains of India, like the Gujjar Bakarwals, Gaddis, and Gujjars, who move between summer and winter pastures according to the seasons. We also learned about pastoralists in the plateaus, plains, and deserts of India, like the Dhangars, Gollas, Kurumas, Kurubas, Banjaras, and Raikas, who move according to the monsoon and dry season patterns.
We then learned how colonial rule affected the lives of pastoralists. The British brought in Waste Land Rules, Forest Acts, the Criminal Tribes Act, and grazing taxes, all of which reduced their grazing lands, restricted their movements, and increased their financial burden. Pastoralists had to adapt by changing their migration routes, reducing herd sizes, or giving up pastoralism altogether.
We also learned about pastoralism in Africa, particularly the Maasai community. We saw how they lost their grazing lands due to the creation of international borders, white settlement, expansion of cultivation, and creation of game reserves. We also learned how restrictions on movement affected their ability to cope with droughts.
Finally, we learned that despite all these challenges, pastoralists continue to survive and adapt to the modern world. Many ecologists now recognize that pastoralism is an ecologically viable form of life for dry and hilly regions.
Students, I hope you have enjoyed this lesson and learned something new about the fascinating world of pastoralists. Remember, these communities have been an important part of our history and continue to contribute to our society even today. Thank you for listening, and I will see you in the next lesson.