Welcome dear students! Today we are going to learn about Ancient Dynasties of South India from Class Six Social Science. In this chapter, we shall study the contribution of the Sangam age to literature. Later, we will come to know the uniqueness of the Sathavahanas, Kadambas, Gangas, Chalukyas of Badami, Pallavas of Kanchi, Rashtrakutas, and Kalyani Chalukyas, along with their achievements. We will also learn about the notable rulers of the Hoysala and the Chola dynasties. We will see the contributions made by these dynasties to the fields of literature and architecture, and we will also understand the Chola local administration. Let us begin our journey through history!
[CHECKPOINT]
First, let us explore the Sangam Literature and the Sangam Age. The Sangam age gave us great literary works. Kannagi is the heroine of the Tamil epic Silappadigaram. This epic is one of the greatest literary works of India. Another epic in the Tamil language is Manimekalai. The heroine is Manimekalai. She was the daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi, his maid servant. She became a Buddhist saint, relieved poor people from poverty, hunger, and illness, and travelled all over the country. There is another moral book, very popular even more than Silappadigaram and Manimekalai. That is Thirukkural. The author of the book was Thiruvalluvar. He was a prominent poet of the Sangam age. The meaning of the word Thirukkural is Thiru meaning Shree, and kural meaning a small thing. Each stanza of a kural has only one and a half lines. But it is very well embellished with meaning. About the kural, it is said that a kural is as if a mustard seed made hollow and seven seas filled into it.
[CHECKPOINT]
Apart from Manimekalai, Silappadigaram, and Tirukkural, there are some other literary works belonging to ancient times. All these together are called Sangam Sahitya. The Pandya rulers of Madurai had established an association called Tamil Sangam, or Tamil Sahitya Sangha, in their capital Madurai, which gave shelter to the poets. It was customary for the poets to submit their works to the Sangha for review. Sangam literature continued for about five centuries, and this period is called the Sangam Age. The Sangam literary works describe the reign of the Chola, Chera, and Pandya dynasties and the life of the people at that time.
Now, let us look at the major royal dynasties of South India. The first dynasty is the Sathavahanas, with their capital at Paithan in Maharashtra, and their famous king was Gowthameeputra Saatakarni. The second dynasty is the Kadambas, with their capital at Banavasi, and their famous king was Mayura Varma. The third is the Gangas, with their capital at Talakadu, and their famous king was Durvineeta. The fourth is the Badami Chalukyas, with their capital at Badami, and their famous king was Immadi Pulakeshi. The fifth is the Pallavas, with their capital at Kanchi in Tamil Nadu, and their famous king was Narasimha Varma. The sixth is the Rashtrakutas, with their capital at Manyakheda, and their famous king was Amoghavarsha Nrupatunga. The seventh is the Kalyani Chalukyas, with their capital at Basava Kalyana, and their famous king was Vikramaditya the Sixth. The eighth is the Hoysalas, with their capital at Dwarasamudra, and their famous king was Vishnuvardhana. The ninth is the Cholas, with their capital at Tanjavur in Tamil Nadu, and their famous king was Raja Raja Chola.
[CHECKPOINT]
Let us move on to the Sathavahanas. Centuries ago, a dynasty called the Sathavahanas ruled some parts of Southern India. Its capital was Prathishthanapura, which is now Paithan in Maharashtra. Looking at the map of the Sathavahana Empire, we can see it extended from Bharukachha in the west to Kalyana, Nasika, Sopara, Pratistanapura, Karle, Sannathi, Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda, Dhanyakataka, Banavasi, Chandravalli, and Bramhagiri, reaching the Bay of Bengal, the Arabian Sea, and the Indian Ocean. The most famous ruler was Gowthameeputra Saatakarni. He defeated foreign dynasties like the Shakas, Yavanas, and Pallavas. He reprinted his name on the coins of the Shakas of Nahapana. His kingdom expanded to the Konkan, Sourashtra, Malura, and Birar regions. He had the title Tri Samudrathoya Pithavahana, which means he who has his vehicle, the horses that have drunk the water of three seas.
[CHECKPOINT]
Regarding dharma and society, the Sathavahanas were adherents of Vaidika dharma. They would perform sacrifices like Ashwamedha and other sacrifices. Foreigners who settled adopted Hinduism or Buddhism and kept the names of the Gods and Goddesses. They worshipped Shiva and Vishnu and lived happily in society. Women were respected, held properties, and donated liberally to the dharmic centres. For literature and education, Prakrit language was the administrative language of the Sathavahanas. The inscriptions are also in Prakrit language and Brahmi script. King Hala composed a work called Gathasaptasati in Prakrit language. Gunadya wrote Vaddakatha, and Sarvavarma wrote Katantra Vyakarana. Agraharas were established for education. Among them, in Shivamogga district, Sthana Kunduru was an important centre of education.
[CHECKPOINT]
The Sathavahanas contributed considerably to architecture. Three types of Buddhist structures that developed during their time are Chaityas, Viharas, and Stupas. Chaityas are the prayer halls of Buddhists, and Viharas are the living places of Bouddha bhikshus. Sathavahana structures are Chaityas and Viharas carved out of massive rocks. The Chaitya near Karle in Maharashtra is very big and beautiful. The Chaitya near Kanheri is famous. Viharas are also carved out of massive rocks. The Stupa at Amaravathi in Andhra Pradesh is built of marble and is artistic. We can see Sathavahana architecture at Sannati and Banavasi in Uttara Kannada and Kalaburagi districts.
Trade and trade centres were very prosperous during Sathavahana times due to internal and external trading. Many cities were busy trade centres called Nigamas. Paithana, Karle, Kanheri, Junnar, and Nasik in Maharashtra, Dhanya Kataka, which is Dharanikote in Andhra, and Vyjayanthi, which is Banavasi in Uttara Kannada, were Nigamas. There were guilds called Shrenies in cities. Associations formed to protect the interests of trades, like Dhanika Shreni for corn merchants. Likewise, there were Shrenis for oil millers, blacksmiths, bronze-smiths, potters, and others. Each Shreni had a leader called Shreshti or setty. Shrenis functioned as modern banks do. They would support industrial and trade activities. The builder of the famous Chaitya at Karle was a Shreshti.
[CHECKPOINT]
The East and West coasts of the empire had a number of ports. Bharukacha, which is present day Broach, Sopara, and Kalyana near Mumbai, and there were many such ports on the West coast. India's trade relations with the Roman empire of Europe were well established during the Sathavahana period. As many commodities were exported to Europe from India, in return, gold was imported in large quantities. There was foreign trade carried through the ports of the east coast. The Sathavahana kingdom became much prosperous due to lucrative foreign trade.
Now, let us learn about the Kadambas of Banavasi. The Kadamba dynasty was the first royal dynasty of Karnataka. It flourished in north west Karnataka after the Sathavahanas. Mayura Sharma was the founder of the Kadamba dynasty. As there was a Kadamba tree in front of his house, the family gained the name Kadamba. Mayura Sharma was the founder and famous king of this dynasty. The capital of the Kadambas was Banavasi, in Uttara Kannada district. The emblem of the Kadamba is a lion. Mayurasharma, a Brahmin, went to Kanchi for his studies. As he was insulted by a Pallava Cavalry officer, unable to tolerate humiliation, Mayura Sharma left Brahminhood and became a Kshatriya. He brought the hilly people together and attacked the Pallavas. Eventually, the Pallava king conceded to his kingship and handed over many areas of Karnataka to Mayuravarma. Mayuravarma repaired a lake in Chandravalli near Chitradurga.
[CHECKPOINT]
Prakrit, Sanskrit, and Kannada languages were in use during this age. Initially, Prakrit language was used, then Sanskrit language gained more recognition. Sanskrit was the court language and was used in education. Later, Kannada language acquired more recognition. An inscription written in Kannada was discovered at Halmidi village in Hassan district. This is the earliest inscription written in Kannada. An inscription written in Sanskrit was discovered at Talagunda in Shivamogga district belonging to the Kadamba times. A poet called Kubja wrote it. He is the oldest Sanskrit poet of Karnataka. The Talagunda inscription is the first Sanskrit inscription found in Karnataka. The Kadambas made a special contribution to the architecture and sculpture of Karnataka. They built many temples at Banavasi. Lord Madhukeswara was the family deity of the Kadambas. There is an attractive icon of Parashurama at Banavasi.
Next, we will study the Gangas of Talakadu. Their royal emblem is an elephant. The Gangas flourished in Karnataka when the Kadambas were ruling in North West Karnataka. The Gangas who ruled for a longer period in Karnataka came from an agricultural community background. This royal family ruled for about six hundred and fifty years. Kolar, also known as Kuvalalapura, and Talakadu, also known as Talavanapura, were their capitals. Konganivarma was the founder of this dynasty. Madhagaja is their emblem. Durvineetha was a famous king among the Gangas.
[CHECKPOINT]
Durvineetha, who ruled about five hundred years ago, was a hero and a scholar. His mother Jeshthadevi belonged to the Punnata royal family. Since there was no heir, meaning no male child, in that family, Durvineetha became the heir of Punnata. He defeated the neighbouring enemies in many wars and expanded the Ganga kingdom. He built many ocean like lakes for irrigation. A scholar of Sanskrit and Kannada language, Durvineetha wrote a commentary on the fifteenth chapter of the Sanskrit poet Bharavi's work Kiratarjuniya. He also translated Gunadya's Vaddakatha into Sanskrit. In Kaviraja Marga, Sri Vijaya says that Durvineetha is one of the most important Kannada prose writers. Kaviraja Marga is the first available book in Kannada. After Durvineetha, Sri Purusha and Rachamalla ruled the kingdom. Chavundaraya, Prime Minister of Rachamalla, built the world famous Gommateshwara idol, which is seventeen point six meters or fifty eight feet high, on Vindhyagiri hill at Shravanabelagola.
For literature, some of the Ganga kings were also scholars. Durvineetha was a famous scholar of Sanskrit and Kannada. Sripursha wrote a work called Gajashastra. Chavundaraya, who was the Prime Minister of the Ganga, composed a work called Chavundaraya Purana in Kannada. For architecture and iconography, the Ganga contribution was immense. Important sites include Manne in Nelamangala Taluk, Kapileshwar, Talakadu Pataleshwara, Kolaramma Temple at Kolar, Jain Basadis of Shravanabelagola, Kambahalli in Nagamangala Taluk, Panchakoota basadi, and others. The fifty eight feet high monolithic Gommateshwara idol in Shravanabelagola is a significant contribution of the Ganga.
[CHECKPOINT]
Now let us move to the Chalukyas of Badami. Their royal emblem is the Varaha, or boar. The Badami Chalukyas ruled over Karnataka for about two centuries in a grand manner. The capital city of the Badami Chalukyas was Vatapi, which is Badami in Bagalkote district. Pulikeshi the Second was the greatest king among the Badami Chalukyas. He was very brave and strong. He undertook many expeditions to vanquish the rebels and to expand the kingdom. The Kadambas and Gangas surrendered to Pulikeshi the Second voluntarily. Pulikeshi defeated Harshavardhana in a battle held on the banks of the river Narmada. This is a great accomplishment. Kings of Kalinga and Kosala surrendered themselves without any fight. Pulikeshi defeated the Pallavas of Kanchi, crossed the river Kaveri, and defeated the Cholas and Cheras, and convinced the Pandyas to accept his authority in the south. Thus, by establishing victory in all directions, Pulikeshi returned to Badami. His kingdom extended from the western coast to the eastern coast. Pulikeshi's fame extended beyond India. He sent a delegation to Khusru, the king of Persia, and presented him with precious things and five elephants. Khusru sent an allied delegation to Pulikeshi's court. A cave at Ajanta has a colourful wall painting of Khusru and his queen welcoming Pulikeshi's ambassador.
[CHECKPOINT]
The architecture of the Chalukyas of Badami can be seen at Badami, Aihole, Pattadakal, Mahakoota, and Nagarala. Aihole and Badami have cave temples. Among the temples of Aihole, Surya, also known as Ladkhan, Meguti, Karthikeya, also known as Huchimalli, and Durga are the most important. Aihole is called the Cradle of temple architecture. Embossed architecture of Nataraja and Vishnu at Badami temples is noteworthy. The Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal is large and beautiful. Pattadakal is one of the world heritage centres. A world heritage centre means that the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization has recognized some of the significant and precious places of the world as belonging to world heritage. They provide special privileges and protection. Hampi, Pattadakal, Western Ghats, Beluru, Halebidu, and Somanathapura are the world heritage sites in Karnataka.
Let us now explore the Pallavas of Kanchi. The Pallava dynasty was one of the famous dynasties of South India. The Pallava capital was at Kanchi in Tamil Nadu. They ruled for nearly three hundred years. Narasimha Varma was the greatest of all Pallava kings. He had the title Mahamalla. Brave and heroic as he was, Narasimha Varma invaded the Badami Chalukya kingdom, defeated Pulikeshi the Second, and annexed Badami. In memory of the victory, he assumed the title Vatapikonda. He developed Mamallapura, also known as Mahabalipuram, and Revupattana into a beautiful city.
[CHECKPOINT]
The Pallava contribution to architecture is invaluable. At Mahabalipuram, there are eight monolithic chariots built during the rule of Narasimha Varma. They are carved in one stone. There is an embossed stone artefact called Gangavatara at Mahabalipuram. This is a famous relief sculpture. This carving depicts Bhagiratha performing penance to get the Ganga to the earth. The Pallavas built huge temples. One of them is the Shiva temple on the coast of Mahabalipuram. The other two such temples are the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi and the Vaikunta Perumal temple. Embossed means decorated with a design that stands out in relief.
Next are the Rashtrakutas. Their emblem is remembered alongside Kavirajamarga, Adikavi Pampa, and the Kailasanatha Temple at Ellora. Kavirajamarga is a literary work on poetics, which is a Lakshana Grantha, of the Rashtrakuta Age. It was completed by Srivijaya in the ninth century. It is the earliest Kannada literary work. Poetics is the study of linguistic techniques in poetry and literature. Among the great rulers, Govinda the Third was the ablest among the Rashtrakuta emperors. He established supremacy of the Rashtrakutas in south India. Thereafter, he led a military expedition in north India and victoriously marched up to the Himalayan region. His court poet described the victory thus: Govinda's war elephants tasted the holy waters of the Ganga.
[CHECKPOINT]
Amoghavarsha Nrupatunga was the son of Govinda the Third. When he ascended the throne, he was a youth of fourteen. He ruled for more than sixty years. He was a scholar. Srivijaya, a poet, was in his court. Amoghavarsha Nrupatunga was deeply concerned with the welfare of his subjects. He built the city of Manyakheta, which is Malkhed in Kalaburagi district, which became the Rashtrakuta capital. Sulaiman, a foreign traveller who visited the Rashtrakuta empire, stated that the Rashtrakuta empire was one among the four mighty empires of the world. The other empires being the Roman, the Arab, and the Chinese. Under Krishna the Third, the Rashtrakutas once again became the supreme power. He defeated the Cholas and proceeded up to Rameshwaram, securing victory all along. At Rameshwaram, he built a tower of victory and a temple. Soon he defeated the Pandyas and the Cheras. From the ruler of Sri Lanka, Krishna the Third collected tax and tributes. Like Govinda the Third, he also conducted a very successful expedition in North India. Ponna, an eminent Kannada poet, adorned the court of Krishna the Third. After the glorious rule under Krishna the Third, the Rashtrakutas began to decline.
Pampa was the greatest Kannada poet. He composed the first epic poem in Kannada. Hence, Pampa is called Adi Kavi of Kannada. The Kannada poems composed before Pampa were not found so far. Pampa was in the court of Arikesari of Vemulavada. Adipurana and Vikramarjuna Vijaya are Pampa's greatest epics that influence other major Kannada poets. Ponna is another Kannada epic poet who belongs to this period.
[CHECKPOINT]
The Kailasa Temple of Ellora is a monolithic temple carved out of a one hundred meters high rock. The credit for its construction goes to Krishna the First of the Rashtrakuta kings. Such architecture is not seen anywhere in the world. It is a feast for the eyes to see the wonderful sculpture. The story of Ravana lifting Mount Kailasa is depicted in the sculpture, which is picturesque. A large part of the present Maharashtra state formed part of the Rashtrakuta empire. The glory of the Rashtrakuta sculptural wealth is best seen in the rock cut cave at Elephanta. Elephanta is a tiny island near Mumbai port. At Elephanta, one is wonderstruck by the relief work depicting three faced Mahesha, which is also called Trimurti.
Now, let us study the Chalukyas of Kalyana. After the Rashtrakutas, the Chalukya dynasty again came to power, and later they were known as Chalukyas of Kalyana. Their capital was Basava Kalyana in Bidar district. The greatest emperor of the dynasty was Vikramaditya the Sixth. His long rule witnessed remarkable progress in Karnataka. During his reign, the Chalukya Vikrama era was commenced. Vikramaditya the Sixth patronised several eminent scholars. Bilhana, who was one among them, wrote Vikramankadeva Charita, a biography of Vikramaditya the Sixth. Vijnaneshwara was another outstanding scholar in his court. His work Mitakshara Samhita is considered an authority on Hindu law.
[CHECKPOINT]
The reign of Someshwara the Third, son of Vikramaditya the Sixth, was marked by peace and prosperity. The emperor patronised arts and literature. He wrote Manasollasa in Sanskrit, which deals with several branches of knowledge. Being a renowned scholar, he was aptly called Sarvagna Chakravarti. The age of the Chalukyas was remarkable for the growth of literature. Ranna, called by the title Kavi Chakravarti, wrote Sahasa Bhima Vijaya or Gadayuddha, a heroic poem. Pampa, Ponna, and Ranna are known as Ratna Traya, or Three Diamonds, of Kannada literature. A special contribution of this age is Vachana literature, written in a simple but effective style in Kannada. The eminent Vachana writers of the age were Jedara Dasimayya, Basavanna, Allamaprabhu, Akka Mahadevi, Siddharama, Madivala Machayya, Sule Sankavve, and others. A large number of charming temples were built during the Chalukya age. They served as centres of various fine arts. The Mahadeva temple at Itagi in Koppala district is the best among the Chalukya temples. An inscription describes this temple as the Emperor among the Temples.
[CHECKPOINT]
Let us look at the chronology. Rashtrakuta rule was around seven fifty to nine fifty. Kalyana Chalukya rule was around nine seventy to eleven fifty. Govinda the Third ruled from seven ninety three to eight fourteen. Amoghavarsha Nrupatunga ruled from eight fourteen to eight seventy eight. Krishna the Third ruled from nine thirty nine to nine sixty seven. Vikramaditya the Sixth ruled from one thousand seventy six to one thousand one hundred twenty seven. The Chalukya Vikrama era started in one thousand seventy six. Someshwara the Third ruled from one thousand one hundred twenty seven to one thousand one hundred thirty seven.
Now, let us visit the Hoysalas. Imagine a school trip to Belur. The students see an architectural wonder sparkling in the morning sunlight. The teacher explains that this is the world renowned Hoysala temple. Unlike other temples, it stands on a high platform called a jagali, which is star shaped. The platform is built this way so the magnificence of the temple can be well seen. Not only the platform, but also the walls, sanctum, and tower are star shaped. A star shaped wall surface gives scope for the play of light and shade in a very effective way. As a result, the sculptures appear sharper and more projected outward. The Hoysalas built numerous temples using soft slate stone. The sculptors laid more emphasis on ornamentation. The outer surface of the walls of the temple has relief sculptures depicting processions of elephants and horsemen and bands of foliage. In the delicate treatment of the sculptures, nobody could beat the Hoysala craftsmen.
[CHECKPOINT]
Inside the temple, we find the Navaranga. It is meant for rendering music and dance during puja. Note the four pillars of the Navaranga. These are lathe turned. They shine like a mirror. Look up at the delicately carved ceiling of the Navaranga. It is called Bhuvaneshwari. We then enter the sanctum, or Garbhagriha, of the temple. Here is the main deity, Vijayanarayana. The main attraction of this temple are the Madanika sculptures. Madanikas are delicately carved female figurines in different poses. People say that the Hoysala temples were the handiwork of a famous sculptor Jakanachari. Although we do not know anything about him, there is a popular legend. Jakanachari left his wife and young son, moved from place to place for years building temples. Once, when he was constructing a temple in the Hoysala capital, his son Dankanachari wandered in search of his father and came there. He was proficient in sculpture. He saw a statue sculpted by Jakanachari, ready to be installed. When Dakanachari pointed out a defect in the statue, Jakanachari responded by asserting that if the former were to prove it, he would chop off his hand. Dakanachari then applied sandalwood paste on the stomach of the statue. When the paste dried up, the place around the navel remained wet. When the navel area was ripped open, it was found to be hollow and contained some water, sand, and a frog. Seeing this, Jakanachari quickly cut off his hand. Only after this tragedy did the two come to know that they were father and son. The legend says that with just one hand, Jakanachari undertook building the Keshava temple at his birth place. As the work progressed, Jakanachari gradually regained his hand.
[CHECKPOINT]
There are about one hundred Hoysala temples found in Hassan district. The most important among them are at Halebidu, Beluru, and Somanathapura. Most of the Hoysala temples are located in Hassan, Tumakuru, and Mandya districts. The present Halebidu was previously known as Dorasamudra because of an ancient and vast lake there. Dorasamudra, the Hoysala capital, was looted and ruined by Malik Kafur's army in one thousand three hundred ten, which had been dispatched by Alauddin Khilji. Thereafter, Dorasamudra never recovered from its ruins and came to be known as Halebidu. The Hoysalas gloriously ruled over vast territories in southern Karnataka and parts of Tamil Nadu for more than three centuries. Beluru was their first capital, Dorasamudra being the next. Their emblem depicts Sala, slaying a tiger.
Prominent rulers of the Hoysala dynasty include Vishnuvardhana and Ballala the Third. Vishnuvardhana was an outstanding ruler. He defeated the Cholas and the Pandyas and recovered Kannada territories which were under them. Vishnuvardhana, a follower of Jainism, later accepted Srivaishnavism. His queen Shantala, however, continued to follow Jainism. A tolerant ruler, he patronised Shaivism and Jainism. Ballala the Third was the last notable ruler. He ruled for a long period of fifty years. During his reign, the sultans of Delhi repeatedly invaded the southern kingdoms. As a result, the temples of south India were looted of their wealth and got destroyed. Except the Hoysala, all other dynasties disappeared. Hence, Ballala the Third had to face single handedly his opponents. The sultan of Madurai became more and more aggressive. Ballala the Third, in spite of his old age, proceeded to punish him. However, Ballala the Third was taken captive by deceit and cruelly killed. Ballala the Third was the only one who emerged as a shining star during the dark period of foreign invasion. After Ballala the Third, his son Ballala the Fourth was killed by the sultan of Madurai in one thousand three hundred forty six, and with this, the Hoysala dynasty ended. But by then, the Vijayanagara empire had already been established.
[CHECKPOINT]
The contributions of the Hoysalas to Kannada literature are remarkable. The notable poets of the Hoysala period were Janna, Harihara, and Raghavanka. Janna was the greatest among them and he was called Kavichakravarti. Harihara wrote in a style known as ragale. He also wrote an epic. Raghavanka wrote several poems which set a new trend in the development of the Kannada language. Andayya wrote literary works in Achha Kannada. During this period, the vachanas enriched Kannada literature. The poets and their works are Janna with Yashodhara Charite, Harihara with Girija Kalyana, Raghavanka with Harishchandra Kavya, and Andayya with Kabbigara Kavam.
Now, let us learn about the Cholas. Can you name the Chola bronze sculptures? They are Nataraja and young Krishna dancing on the serpent Kalinga. Bronze forms the most important contribution of the Cholas to Indian art. Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin. Bronze is hard and shining. The statues of bronze are made by pouring hot bronze liquid into the mould. This technique is still in use. The Chola contribution to architecture is also remarkable. The Brihadishvara temple at Tanjavur is world famous. It is one thousand years old. Note the tall vimana of the Brihadishvara temple. Vimana is the tower which is raised above the sanctum. The vimana rises in thirteen storeys as if touching the sky. Its height is sixty one meters, or two hundred feet. The Brihadishvara is the largest and the tallest of all Indian temples. It is recognised as a world heritage site. It is a common feature to install a statue of a bull, or Nandi, right in front of Shiva temples. The single stone bull at the Brihadishvara temple is the largest in south India. Another gigantic temple of the Chola period is the Shiva temple at Gangaikonda Cholapuram. The Reserve Bank of India in two thousand ten brought out a one thousand years of Brihadishvara Temple coin of one thousand rupees face value.
[CHECKPOINT]
The Cholas ruled for four centuries as a great power in southern India. Their capital was Tanjavur in Tamil Nadu. Among the Chola emperors, Rajaraja Chola and Rajendra Chola are well known. Rajaraja Chola was a powerful ruler and an able administrator. His vast empire included all the regions south of the Tungabhadra, as well as Sri Lanka and the Maldives. To keep his empire secure, he built a strong army and navy. The marvellous Brihadishvara temple is his contribution. Rajaraja Chola was succeeded by his son Rajendra Chola. His main achievement was his successful military expedition to Northern India. In order to commemorate his victory, Rajendra assumed the title Gangaikonda. Besides, he celebrated this historical victory by building a new capital called Gangaikonda Cholapuram. He also built a gigantic Shiva temple in the new capital. Near the capital, he built a huge irrigation lake and named it Cholagangam. Another notable achievement of Rajendra was the conquest of the kingdom of Srivijaya, which is modern Sumatra, in South east Asia.
The Chola period is the Golden Age of Tamil literature and culture. The period saw a rich growth of Bhakti literature. Periyapuranam occupies an important place in this literature. Kamba Ramayana, written by Kamban during this period, still enjoys popularity. The village administration under the Chola empire was exemplary. The administration was largely left to the village assemblies. The assemblies were elected bodies. For day to day administration, various committees were formed with specific functions. They were required to submit accounts periodically. They used to remove disqualified members out of the assembly. On the whole, the committees functioned more or less on the lines of the present day village panchayats. The British administrators in India appreciated the efficient village administration and described that the Chola villages functioned like Little Republics.
[CHECKPOINT]
The Chola empire enjoyed prosperity. It had a brisk foreign trade with China, Sumatra, and Arabia. Merchant guilds organised trading activities both within and outside the country. Let us review the chronology. The Chola rule was around eight fifty to one thousand two hundred. Rajaraja Chola ruled from nine eighty five to one thousand fourteen. The Hoysala rule was from one thousand six to one thousand three hundred forty six. Rajendra Chola ruled from one thousand fifteen to one thousand forty four. Vishnuvardhana ruled around one thousand one hundred eight to one thousand one hundred forty one. Ballala the Third ruled around one thousand two hundred ninety one to one thousand three hundred forty three. The establishment of Vijayanagara was in one thousand three hundred thirty six.
Now, let us look at some important facts to remember. Thirukkural has one thousand three hundred stanzas. It has many cryptic statements like Dharma is having a spotless mind. All human beings are equal by birth. It is not the javelin that brings victory to the king but his impartial governance. Sangam literature has its beginning about two thousand three hundred years ago and continued for five hundred years. Banavasi Vyjayanthi was the regional capital city of the Sathavahanas. Prakrit was the popular language during the time of the Sathavahanas. The rule of the Sathavahanas started two thousand three hundred years ago and it lasted till about four centuries. The rule of the Kadamba dynasty commenced around one thousand six hundred fifty years ago. They were in power for one hundred ninety years. Halmidi and Talagunda inscriptions are one thousand five hundred fifty years old. Agricultural land was extended during the period of the Ganga's rule. They helped agriculture by building tanks and lakes. One lake for a village was the norm. Paddy, ragi, maize, and cotton were common crops. Cattle wealth and livestock wealth were abundant. She buffaloes, cows, horses, and poultry were in plenty. There were women officers at some offices during the Ganga times. They would give charity on their own. Truthfulness, loyalty to the king, bravery, and patience were the social values of that time. Chandragupta Basadi is on the small hill at Shravanabelagola, which was built by Chandragupta Maurya. The small hill is called Chandragiri. The big hill is called Indragiri. Gommata statues are present in Karkala in Udupi district, Venuru in Dakshina Kannada, Gommatagiri in Mysuru district, Bastihalli in Mandya district, and there are ancient Gommata statues in other places. The architect of Gommata at Dharmasthala was Renjala Gopala Shenoy.
[CHECKPOINT]
Now, let us answer the exercises to prepare for your exams.
Exercise One, Fill in the blanks with suitable words. One. Thirukkural was composed by Thiruvalluvar. Two. The great poet of the Sangam period is Thiruvalluvar. Three. The famous king of the Sathavahana dynasty was Gowthameeputra Saatakarni. Four. The capital of the Kadamba was Banavasi. Five. The Halmidi inscription is the earliest Kannada inscription. Six. Pulakeshi the Second defeated the North Indian emperor Harshavardhana. Seven. The place Aihole is known as the Cradle of Temple architecture. Eight. The idol Gommateshwara at Shravanabelagola was built by Chavundaraya. Nine. The famous ruler of the Ganga was Durvineetha. Ten. Chavundaraya wrote Chavundaraya Purana.
Exercise Two, Answer the following questions in one sentence. Eleven. The heroine of the epic Shilappadigaram was Kannagi. Twelve. Two epics of the Sangam Age are Silappadigaram and Manimekalai. Thirteen. A Chaitya is a prayer hall of Buddhists. Fourteen. You find Chaityas of Sathavahana times near Karle and Kanheri in Maharashtra. Fifteen. You find ruins belonging to Sathavahana times in Karnataka at Sannati and Banavasi in Uttara Kannada and Kalaburagi districts. Sixteen. A Shreni is a guild or association formed to protect the interests of trades, which functioned like modern banks. Seventeen. The famous king of the Kadambas was Mayura Varma. Eighteen. The capital of the Chalukyas of Badami was Vatapi, which is Badami, located in Bagalkote district. Nineteen. Three places where Badami Chalukyan architecture is found are Badami, Aihole, and Pattadakal. Twenty. The most famous king of the Pallavas was Narasimha Varma, and the title he assumed was Mahamalla and Vatapikonda. Twenty one. The capital of the Gangas, Talakadu, is in the Mandya district.
[CHECKPOINT]
Exercise Three, Discuss. Twenty two. The saying All persons are equal by birth from Thirukkural is relevant even today because it promotes social equality, discourages discrimination based on caste or birth, and reminds us that every human being deserves equal respect and opportunity in society. Twenty three. The factors responsible for prosperity during the Sathavahana time were internal and external trade, the establishment of busy trade centres called Nigamas, the functioning of merchant guilds called Shrenies that acted like banks, and lucrative foreign trade with the Roman empire through ports on the east and west coasts. Twenty four. The reasons for the decline of the ancient royal dynasties include repeated foreign invasions like those by the Delhi sultans, internal conflicts, loss of wealth due to temple looting, and the inability to defend against aggressive neighbouring powers, as seen in the fall of the Hoysalas. Twenty five. Pampa was the greatest Kannada poet and Adi Kavi who wrote Adipurana and Vikramarjuna Vijaya. Ponna was another eminent Kannada epic poet in the court of Krishna the Third. Srivijaya was a poet in the court of Amoghavarsha Nrupatunga and completed Kavirajamarga, the earliest Kannada literary work. Twenty six. The Kailasa temple at Ellora is special because it is a monolithic temple carved out of a one hundred meters high rock, which is unique in the world. The Elephanta cave is famous for its wonderful rock cut relief work depicting the three faced Mahesha, also called Trimurti. Twenty seven. The military achievements of Govinda the Third include establishing Rashtrakuta supremacy in south India, leading a victorious expedition to north India up to the Himalayan region, and his war elephants tasting the holy waters of the Ganga. Twenty eight. Amoghavarsha is considered a notable emperor because he ruled for more than sixty years, was a scholar, deeply cared for his subjects' welfare, built the new capital Manyakheta, and his empire was recognized by the foreign traveller Sulaiman as one of the four mighty empires of the world. Twenty nine. Vikramaditya the Sixth is considered the greatest emperor of the Kalyana Chalukya dynasty because his long rule witnessed remarkable progress, he commenced the Chalukya Vikrama era, and he patronised eminent scholars like Bilhana and Vijnaneshwara. Thirty. Vikramankadeva Charita is a biography of Vikramaditya the Sixth written by Bilhana. Mitakshara Samhita is a work by Vijnaneshwara considered an authority on Hindu law. Manasollasa is a Sanskrit work by Someshwara the Third dealing with several branches of knowledge. Thirty one. The Mahadeva temple at Itagi in Koppala district is known as the Emperor among the Temples because of its exceptional architectural beauty and grandeur, as praised in an inscription. Thirty two. Two features of the Hoysala temples are that they stand on a high star shaped platform called a jagali, and they are built using soft slate stone with delicate relief sculptures of elephants, horsemen, and foliage on the outer walls. Thirty three. Bhuvaneshwari refers to the delicately carved ceiling of the Navaranga in Hoysala temples, which is a masterpiece of stone carving. Thirty four. We find the great temples of the Hoysalas in Hassan district, particularly at Halebidu, Beluru, and Somanathapura, as well as in Tumakuru and Mandya districts. Thirty five. The great poets of the Hoysala period and their works are Janna with Yashodhara Charite, Harihara with Girija Kalyana, Raghavanka with Harishchandra Kavya, and Andayya with Kabbigara Kavam. Thirty six. The Brihadishvara temple is famous for being one thousand years old, having a thirteen storey tall vimana that is sixty one meters high, being the largest and tallest Indian temple, and being recognised as a world heritage site. Thirty seven. The achievements of Rajaraja Chola include building a vast empire south of the Tungabhadra including Sri Lanka and the Maldives, creating a strong army and navy, and constructing the marvellous Brihadishvara temple. Thirty eight. The special features of the Chola village administration are that it was largely left to elected village assemblies, various committees with specific functions handled day to day administration, they submitted accounts periodically, disqualified members were removed, and they functioned like modern village panchayats, earning the name Little Republics.
[CHECKPOINT]
Now, let us look at the activities for your learning. First, collect pictures of artefacts of Pallava and Chalukya times with information. Second, read the life stories of Harshavardhana and Pulikeshi the Second from the source Bharatha Bharati Pustaka Sampada. Third, collect pictures of the structural monuments of the Rashtrakuta and the Kalyana Chalukya age with short descriptions. Fourth, locate on the map the capitals and architectural centres of the Rashtrakutas and the Kalyana Chalukyas. Fifth, make a model of Gommata using clay or any other material. Sixth, if you have a chance to visit Shravanabelagola, enjoy the artefacts there. View and gather information about Veeragallus around you. Seventh, collect pictures of the Hoysala and the Chola sculptures and architecture with brief descriptions. Eighth, locate on the map the historical places associated with the Hoysalas and the Cholas.
For the activity comparing the village administration of the Cholas and the present Grama Panchayat system, note that both systems rely on elected representatives to manage local affairs. The Chola system used various committees for specific functions like irrigation, justice, and temple management, which submitted regular accounts and removed disqualified members. Similarly, the present Grama Panchayat system has elected ward members and committees for sanitation, education, and development, which maintain public accounts and follow democratic rules to ensure transparent local governance.
[CHECKPOINT]
Dear students, we have covered the rich history of the ancient dynasties of South India, from the Sangam literature and the Sathavahanas to the Kadambas, Gangas, Chalukyas, Pallavas, Rashtrakutas, Hoysalas, and Cholas. Remember to revise the dates, names of rulers, literary works, and architectural marvels regularly. Practice locating the historical places on your maps and try answering the exercise questions on your own to strengthen your preparation.
Thank you for listening! Keep revising and practicing. Goodbye! [CHAPTER_COMPLETE]