Heat

Welcome dear students! Today we are going to learn about Heat from Class 7 Science. You know that woollen clothes are made from animal fibres. You also know that cotton clothes are made from plant fibres. We wear woollen clothes during winters when it is cold outside. Woollen clothes keep us warm. We prefer to wear light coloured cotton clothes when it is hot. These give us a feeling of coolness. You might have wondered why particular types of clothes are suitable for a particular season. In winter you feel cold inside the house. If you come out in the sun, you feel warm. In summer, you feel hot even inside the house. How do we know whether an object is hot or cold? How do we find out how hot or cold an object is? In this chapter we shall try to seek answers to some of these questions.

Let us begin with section three point one, Hot and Cold. In our day to day life, we come across a number of objects. Some of them are hot and some of them are cold. Tea is hot and ice is cold. Let us list some objects you use commonly and mark them as hot or cold. For example, ice cream is cold. A spoon in a tea cup is hot. Fruit juice is cool. The handle of a frying pan is hot. Please remember, do not touch objects which are too hot. Be careful while handling a candle flame or a stove. Make sure that water is not so hot that you burn your hand.

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Now let us perform Activity three point one. Take three small tubs or containers. Label them as A, B and C. Put cold water in container A and hot water in container B. Mix some cold and hot water in container C. Now dip your left hand in container A and the right hand in container B. After keeping the hands in the two containers for two to three minutes, put both the hands simultaneously in container C. In this setup, you will notice that your left hand feels the water in container C as hot, while your right hand feels the same water as cold. Boojho says, my left hand tells me that the water in mug C is hot and the right hand tells me that the same water is cold. What should I conclude? Boojho's confusion shows that we cannot always rely on our sense of touch to decide whether an object is hot or cold. Sometimes it may deceive us. Then, how do we find out how hot an object really is? A reliable measure of the hotness of an object is its temperature. Temperature is measured by a device called thermometer.

Let us move to section three point two, Measuring Temperature. Have you seen a thermometer? Recall that when you or someone else in your family had fever, the temperature was measured by a thermometer. The thermometer that measures our body temperature is called a clinical thermometer. Hold the thermometer in your hand and examine it carefully. If you do not have a thermometer, request a friend to share it with you. A clinical thermometer looks like the one shown in Figure three point two. In this diagram, we can see a long, narrow, uniform glass tube. It has a bulb at one end. This bulb contains mercury. Outside the bulb, a small shining thread of mercury can be seen. If you do not see the mercury thread, rotate the thermometer a bit till you see it. You will also find a scale on the thermometer. The scale we use is the celsius scale, indicated by degree C. A clinical thermometer reads temperature from thirty five degree C to forty two degree C. Boojho wondered which of the two scales shown in Figure three point two he should read. Paheli told him that India has adopted the celsius scale and we should read that scale. The other scale with the range ninety four to one hundred eight degrees is the Fahrenheit scale, indicated by degree F. It was in use earlier.

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Let us learn how to read a thermometer in Activity three point two. First, note the temperature difference indicated between the two bigger marks. Also note down the number of divisions, shown by smaller marks, between these marks. Suppose the bigger marks read one degree and there are five divisions between them. Then, one small division can read one divided by five, which is zero point two degree C. Now let us note the precautions to be observed while using a clinical thermometer. Thermometer should be washed before and after use, preferably with an antiseptic solution. Ensure that before use the mercury level is below thirty five degree C. Read the thermometer keeping the level of mercury along the line of sight. Handle the thermometer with care. If it hits against some hard object, it can break. Do not hold the thermometer by the bulb while reading it. To measure your temperature, wash the thermometer, preferably with an antiseptic solution. Hold it firmly and give it a few jerks. The jerks will bring the level of mercury down. Ensure that it falls below thirty five degree C. Now place the bulb of the thermometer under your tongue. After one minute, take the thermometer out and note the reading. This is your body temperature. The temperature should always be stated with its unit, degree C. What did you record as your body temperature? The normal temperature of human body is thirty seven degree C. Note that the temperature is stated with its unit.

Let us try to assure Paheli that there is nothing wrong with her. Paheli measured her body temperature. She got worried as it was not exactly thirty seven degree C. Perform Activity three point three. Measure the body temperature of some of your friends, at least ten, with a clinical thermometer. Record your observations in a table like Table three point two. Is the body temperature of every person thirty seven degree C? The temperature of every person may not be thirty seven degree C. It could be slightly higher or slightly lower. Actually, what we call normal temperature is the average body temperature of a large number of healthy persons. The clinical thermometer is designed to measure the temperature of human body only. The temperature of human body normally does not go below thirty five degree C or above forty two degree C. That is the reason that this thermometer has the range thirty five degree C to forty two degree C. Different types of thermometers are used for different purposes. The maximum and minimum temperatures of the previous day, reported in weather reports, are measured by a thermometer called the maximum minimum thermometer. Caution: Do not use a clinical thermometer for measuring the temperature of any object other than the human body. Also avoid keeping the thermometer in the sun or near a flame. It may break.

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How do we measure the temperature of other objects? For this purpose, there are other thermometers. One such thermometer is known as the laboratory thermometer. The teacher will show you this thermometer. Look at it carefully and note the highest and the lowest temperature it can measure. The range of a laboratory thermometer is generally from minus ten degree C to one hundred ten degree C, as shown in Figure three point four. Also, as you did in the case of the clinical thermometer, find out how much a small division on this thermometer reads. You would need this information to read the thermometer correctly. Let us now learn how this thermometer is used. Perform Activity three point four. Take some tap water in a beaker or a mug. Dip the thermometer in water so that the bulb is immersed in water but does not touch the bottom or the sides of the container. Hold the thermometer vertically, as shown in Figure three point five. Observe the movement of mercury in the thermometer. Wait till the mercury thread becomes steady. Note the reading. This is the temperature of water at that time. Compare the temperature of water recorded by each student in the class. Are there any variations in the readings? Discuss the possible reasons. In addition to the precautions to be taken while reading a clinical thermometer, the laboratory thermometer should be kept upright not tilted. The bulb should be surrounded from all sides by the substance of which the temperature is to be measured. The bulb should not touch the surface of the container.

Let us try to answer this question. Activity three point five: Take some hot water in a beaker or a mug. Dip the thermometer in water. Wait till the mercury thread becomes steady and note the temperature. Now take out the thermometer from water. Observe carefully what happens now. Do you notice that as soon as you take the thermometer out of water, the level of mercury begins to fall. This means that the temperature must be read while the thermometer is in water. You may recall that while taking your own temperature, you have to take the thermometer out of your mouth to note the reading. Can you then use the laboratory thermometer to measure your body temperature? Obviously, it is not convenient to use the laboratory thermometer for this purpose. Why does the mercury not fall or rise in a clinical thermometer when taken out of the mouth? Observe a clinical thermometer again. Do you see a kink near the bulb, as shown in Figure three point six? What is the use of the kink? It prevents mercury level from falling on its own. Boojho now understands why clinical thermometer cannot be used to measure high temperatures. But still wonders whether a laboratory thermometer can be used to measure his body temperature.

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Let us move to section three point four, Transfer of Heat. You might have observed that a frying pan becomes hot when kept on a flame. It is because the heat passes from the flame to the utensil. When the pan is removed from the fire, it slowly cools down. Why does it cool down? The heat is transferred from the pan to the surroundings. So you can understand that in both cases, the heat flows from a hotter object to a colder object. In fact, in all cases heat flows from a hotter object to a colder object. Paheli asks, does it mean that heat will not be transferred if the temperature of two objects is the same? How does heat flow? Let us investigate. Activity three point six: Take a rod or flat strip of a metal, say of aluminium or iron. Fix a few small wax pieces on the rod. These pieces should be at nearly equal distances, as shown in Figure three point seven. Clamp the rod to a stand. If you do not find a stand, you can put one end of the rod in between bricks. Now, heat the other end of the rod and observe. What happens to the wax pieces? Do these pieces begin to fall? Which piece falls the first? Do you think that heat is transferred from the end nearest to the flame to the other end? The process by which heat is transferred from the hotter end to the colder end of an object is known as conduction. In solids, generally, the heat is transferred by the process of conduction.

Do all substances conduct heat easily? You must have observed that the metallic pan for cooking has a plastic or wooden handle. Can you lift a hot pan by holding it from the handle without getting hurt? Let us do Activity three point seven. Heat water in a small pan or a beaker. Collect some articles such as a steel spoon, plastic scale, pencil and divider. Dip one end of each of these articles in hot water, as shown in Figure three point eight. Wait for a few minutes. Touch the other end. Enter your observation in a table. The steel spoon is made of metal and the other end gets hot. The plastic scale, pencil, and divider do not get hot at the other end. The materials which allow heat to pass through them easily are conductors of heat. For examples, aluminium, iron and copper. The materials which do not allow heat to pass through them easily are poor conductors of heat such as plastic and wood. Poor conductors are known as insulators. The water and air are poor conductors of heat. Then, how does the heat transfer take place in these substances? Let us find out.

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Activity three point eight: Take a round bottom flask, or a beaker if a flask is not available. Fill it two thirds with water. Place it on a tripod, or make some arrangement to place the flask in such a way that you can heat it by placing a candle below it. Wait till the water in the flask is still. Place a crystal of potassium permanganate at the bottom of the flask gently using a straw. Now, heat the water by placing the candle just below the crystal. Write your observation in your notebook and also draw a picture of what you observe, as shown in Figure three point nine. When water is heated, the water near the flame gets hot. Hot water rises up. The cold water from the sides moves down towards the source of heat. This water also gets hot and rises and water from the sides moves down. This process continues till the whole water gets heated. This mode of heat transfer is known as convection. How does the heat travel in air? In which direction does the smoke go? The air near the heat source gets hot and rises. The air from the sides comes in to take its place. In this way the air gets heated. The following activity confirms this idea. Activity three point nine: Light a candle. Keep one hand above the flame and one hand on the side of the flame, as shown in Figure three point ten. Be careful. Keep your hands at a safe distance from the flame so that they do not get burnt. Do your hands feel equally hot? If not which hand feels hotter? And why? Notice that towards the top, the air gets heated by convection. Therefore, the hand above the flame feels hot. On the sides, however, there is no convection and air does not feel as hot as at the top.

The people living in the coastal areas experience an interesting phenomenon. During the day, the land gets heated faster than the water. The air over the land becomes hotter and rises up. The cooler air from the sea rushes in towards the land to take its place. The warm air from the land moves towards the sea to complete the cycle, as shown in Figure three point eleven. The air from the sea is called the sea breeze. To receive the cooler sea breeze, the windows of the houses in coastal areas are made to face the sea. At night it is exactly the reverse. The water cools down more slowly than the land. So, the cool air from the land moves towards the sea. This is called the land breeze.

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When we come out in the sun, we feel warm. How does the heat from the sun reach us? It cannot reach us by conduction or convection as there is no medium such as air in most part of the space between the earth and the sun. From the sun the heat comes to us by another process known as radiation. The transfer of heat by radiation does not require any medium. It can take place whether a medium is present or not. When we sit in front of a room heater, we get heat by this process. A hot utensil kept away from the flame cools down as it transfers heat to the surroundings by radiation. Our body too, gives heat to the surroundings and receives heat from it by radiation. All hot bodies radiate heat. When this heat falls on some object, a part of it is reflected, a part is absorbed and a part may be transmitted. The temperature of the object increases due to the absorbed part of the heat. Why are you advised to use an umbrella when you go out in the sun?

Let us move to section three point five, Kinds of Clothes We Wear in Summer and Winter. You know that in summer we prefer light coloured clothes and in winter we usually wear dark coloured clothes. Why is it so? Let us find out. Activity three point ten: Take two identical tin cans. Paint the outer surface of one black and of the other white, as shown in Figure three point twelve. Pour equal amounts of water in each and leave them in the mid day sun for about an hour. Measure the temperature of water in both the cans. Do you find any difference in the temperatures? In which can is the water warmer? You can feel the difference even by touching water in the two cans. Activity three point eleven: Fill the two cans used in Activity three point ten with the same amount of hot water at the same temperature, say at sixty degree C. Leave the cans in a room or in a shade. Note the temperature of water after ten to fifteen minutes. Does the temperature of water in both the cans fall by the same amount? Do these activities suggest to you the reason why it is more comfortable to wear white or light coloured clothes in the summer and dark coloured clothes in the winter? Dark surfaces absorb more heat and, therefore, we feel comfortable with dark coloured clothes in the winter. Light coloured clothes reflect most of the heat that falls on them and, therefore, we feel more comfortable wearing them in the summer.

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Woollen clothes keep us warm in winter. In the winter, we use woollen clothes. Wool is a poor conductor of heat. Moreover, there is air trapped in between the wool fibres. This air prevents the flow of heat from our body to the cold surroundings. So, we feel warm. Suppose you are given the choice in winter of using either one thick blanket or two thin blankets joined together. What would you choose and why? Remember that there would be a layer of air in between the blankets. We often use electricity and fuels like coal and wood to keep our houses cool or warm. Is it possible to construct buildings, that are not affected much by heat and cold outside? This can be done by constructing outer walls of buildings so that they have trapped layers of air. One way of doing this is to use hollow bricks, which are available these days.

Let us quickly review the keywords: Celsius scale, Conduction, Conductor, Convection, Insulator, Land breeze, Radiation, Sea breeze, Temperature, Thermometer. What you have learnt: Our sense of touch is not always a reliable guide to the degree of hotness of an object. Temperature is a measure of the degree of hotness of an object. Thermometer is a device used for measuring temperature. Clinical thermometer is used to measure our body temperature. The range of this thermometer is from thirty five degree C to forty two degree C. For other purposes, we use the laboratory thermometers. The range of these thermometers is usually from minus ten degree C to one hundred ten degree C. The normal temperature of the human body is thirty seven degree C. The heat flows from a body at a higher temperature to a body at a lower temperature. There are three ways in which heat can flow from one object to another. These are conduction, convection and radiation. In solids, generally, the heat is transferred by conduction. In liquids and gases the heat is transferred by convection. No medium is required for transfer of heat by radiation. The materials which allow heat to pass through them easily are conductors of heat. The materials which do not allow heat to pass through them easily are called insulators. Dark coloured objects absorb more heat than the light coloured objects. That is the reason we feel more comfortable in light coloured clothes in the summer. Woollen clothes keep us warm during winter. It is so because wool is a poor conductor of heat and it has air trapped in between the fibres.

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Now let us go through the exercises together. Question one: State similarities and differences between the laboratory thermometer and the clinical thermometer. Based on our chapter, both are made of a long, narrow, uniform glass tube with a bulb containing mercury and use the celsius scale. The clinical thermometer ranges from thirty five to forty two degree C and has a kink near the bulb, while the laboratory thermometer ranges from minus ten to one hundred ten degree C and has no kink. Question two: Give two examples each of conductors and insulators of heat. Conductors include aluminium, iron, and copper. Insulators include plastic and wood. Question three: Fill in the blanks. (a) The hotness of an object is determined by its temperature. (b) Temperature of boiling water cannot be measured by a clinical thermometer. (c) Temperature is measured in degree celsius. (d) No medium is required for transfer of heat by the process of radiation. (e) A cold steel spoon is dipped in a cup of hot milk. Heat is transferred to its other end by the process of conduction. (f) Clothes of dark colours absorb more heat better than clothes of light colours.

Question four: Match the following. (i) Land breeze blows during night. (ii) Sea breeze blows during day. (iii) Dark coloured clothes are preferred during winter. (iv) Light coloured clothes are preferred during summer. Question five: Discuss why wearing more layers of clothing during winter keeps us warmer than wearing just one thick piece of clothing. As we learned, air is a poor conductor of heat. Multiple layers trap air between them, acting as an insulator that prevents body heat from escaping to the cold surroundings. Question six: Look at Figure three point thirteen. Mark where the heat is being transferred by conduction, by convection and by radiation. In the pan setup, heat moves from the flame to the pan by radiation, travels through the solid pan to the handle by conduction, and moves through the water by convection as hot water rises and cold water sinks.

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Question seven: In places of hot climate it is advised that the outer walls of houses be painted white. Explain. Light coloured surfaces reflect most of the heat that falls on them and absorb very little, keeping the house interior cooler. Question eight: One litre of water at thirty degree C is mixed with one litre of water at fifty degree C. The temperature of the mixture will be between thirty degree C and fifty degree C. Question nine: An iron ball at forty degree C is dropped in a mug containing water at forty degree C. The heat will not flow from iron ball to water or from water to iron ball, because heat only flows when there is a temperature difference. Question ten: A wooden spoon is dipped in a cup of ice cream. Its other end does not become cold, because wood is an insulator and does not conduct heat or cold easily. Question eleven: Stainless steel pans are usually provided with copper bottoms because copper is a better conductor of heat than stainless steel, allowing faster and more even heating.

Let us look at the extended learning activities and projects. Activity one: Visit a doctor or health centre. Observe temperature taking. The thermometer is dipped in liquid to clean it with an antiseptic solution. It is kept under the tongue because that area gives an accurate core body temperature reading. Temperature can also be measured under the armpit, but the mouth is standard. Different body parts have slightly different temperatures. Activity two: Visit a veterinary doctor. Normal temperatures vary by species. For instance, dogs typically range from thirty eight to thirty nine degree C, while birds run hotter, around forty to forty one degree C.

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Activity three: Wrap a thin paper strip tightly around an iron rod. Try to burn the paper with a candle while rotating the rod continuously. The paper does not burn easily. The iron rod conducts heat away from the paper quickly, preventing it from reaching its ignition temperature. Activity four: Draw a spiral on paper, cut it out, and suspend it above a lighted candle. The spiral rotates. The candle heats the air above it, causing the hot air to rise by convection. This upward air current pushes against the spiral, making it spin. Activity five: Take two wide mouth glass bottles. Put potassium permanganate or ink in one and fill it with hot water. Fill the other with cold water. Cover the cold water bottle with a postcard, invert it over the hot water bottle, and pull the postcard out. The coloured hot water rises into the top bottle while cold water sinks. This demonstrates convection, as hot water is less dense and rises, while denser cold water sinks.

Did you know? The celsius scale was devised by a Swedish astronomer, Anders Celsius in 1742. Strangely, he fixed the temperature of boiling water as zero degree C and freezing water as one hundred degree C. However, this order was reversed very soon. We have covered the entire chapter on Heat. We learned about temperature, thermometers, conduction, convection, radiation, and how different materials and colours affect heat transfer. I hope you found this lesson helpful and interesting. Thank you for listening! Keep revising and practicing. Goodbye! [CHAPTER_COMPLETE]