India And Her Neighbours

Namaste students, welcome to today's social science lesson. I am so happy to see you all here, ready to learn about something really important and interesting — our great nation India and her neighbours. Today we are going to study Chapter 2, which is titled "India and Her Neighbours." This is a fascinating chapter that will take us on a journey across mountains, seas, and across centuries of history. Are you ready? Let us begin.

So students, let us start by thinking about a very simple question. What does the word "neighbour" mean to you? Perhaps you think of the family that lives next door to you, or the shop owner on your street. Now, let us think about this in terms of countries. When we say India has neighbours, what do we actually mean? Well, traditionally, we think of a neighbour as a country that shares a land border with us. That is the most common understanding, and it is certainly correct. In that sense, Pakistan and Afghanistan in the northwest, China's region of Tibet, Nepal, and Bhutan in the north, and Bangladesh and Myanmar in the east are indeed our neighbours. Let me tell you something interesting — India's total land boundary stretches over 15,100 kilometres. That is a huge distance! And this boundary passes through very diverse landscapes. Can you imagine? It goes through deserts, plains, forests, mountains, marshes, and river valleys. That is remarkable, isn't it?

But students, here is something important we must understand. India has always been a maritime nation. What does that mean? It means that India is surrounded by sea on three sides — the Arabian Sea on the west, the Bay of Bengal on the east, and the Indian Ocean to the south. Because of this peninsular shape, India extends deep into the Indian Ocean. This gives India access to important sea routes. So, when we think about neighbours, we should not only think about countries that share land borders with us. We must also think about countries that are connected to us through the sea. These are called maritime neighbours.

So students, let me give you a clear definition. A maritime neighbour is a country connected to another by a shared sea or ocean, even without a direct land border. For example, Sri Lanka and the Maldives are our immediate neighbours across the waters. But if we look at India from a high-altitude satellite, we can also see that nations like Iran, Oman, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia are part of our maritime neighbourhood. This is a wider understanding of neighbourhood, and in this chapter, we will use this broader perspective to understand India's central and strategic place in South Asia.

Now, before we go further, let me tell you something about the Indian Ocean. The Indian Ocean is the third-largest ocean in the world, and it is an incredibly busy route. Did you know that half of the world's container ships, one third of the bulk cargo, and two-thirds of the world's oil are transported through this ocean? This ocean connects many countries, which are home to around 2.7 billion people. That is a huge number, students! With a long coastline of approximately 11,100 kilometres, India holds a unique maritime position. Her peninsular shape extends deep into the Indian Ocean, and this location provides India with access to important sea routes, making her a vital link between Southeast Asia, West Asia, and Africa. This has allowed India to play a key role in trade and regional cooperation. India's ports serve as gateways for imports and exports, and her central position helps in providing timely humanitarian aid and disaster relief in the region.

Now students, let me introduce you to an important concept. Such involvement is called regionalism. Regionalism helps create peace, stability, and shared progress. It teaches us that being good neighbours is not just about borders, but also about working together for the benefit of everyone in the region. This is a very important point to remember throughout this chapter.

Now, let us move on to study India's land-based neighbours one by one. We will start with India's largest neighbour, which is China.

Since 1950, India and China, two of Asia's largest and most influential nations, have shared a long and strategic relationship shaped by history, geography, culture, trade, and politics. These two great countries are separated by the Himalayas. Their border stretches from east to west across the states of Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, and the Union Territory of Ladakh. That is quite a long border running through very difficult mountain terrain.

Now, let us talk about the cultural links between India and China. Culturally, Buddhism is a powerful link between the two countries. Buddhism originated in India, and it reached China around the 1st century CE via trade and pilgrimage routes. Can you imagine that? Over two thousand years ago, traders and monks were traveling between our two great nations! A few centuries later, Chinese monks like Faxian and Xuanzang travelled to Indian centres of learning. These are famous names in history. Xuanzang, in particular, is known for his journey to India and for carrying Buddhist scriptures back to China. On the other hand, Indian monks such as Bodhidharma, Dharmakshema and Kumarajiva carried Buddhist teachings to China, creating deep spiritual and intellectual ties. Bodhidharma is particularly famous for founding the Zen school of Buddhism in China.

Let me share something interesting with you. In the 13th century, Hindu merchants built temples in the Chinese port city of Quanzhou, an important trading centre. At the Kaiyuan temple, there are pillars that depict carvings of Vishnu, Shiva, and stories from the Ramayana and the Puranas. This shows how deep the connections were between our civilizations.

Now, students, let us talk about trade between India and China. India's trade relationship with China continues to this day. In 2024-2025, India's chief exports to China were iron ore, chemicals, and cotton yarn. The imports from China include electronic items such as mobile phones and computer hardware, as well as a variety of industrial equipment. Several Indian companies have set up operations in China and vice versa. However, the balance of trade is currently much in China's favour, since her exports to India are worth about eight times more than India's exports to China. This is something that India is working to address.

Recent years have also seen phases of heightened tensions between India and China, mostly related to their shared borders, and a few serious conflicts. Some of these are topics you will encounter in higher classes. On the other hand, efforts are being made to resolve disputes through trade, dialogue, and border resolution mechanisms. This shows that even neighbours with differences can work towards peace and cooperation.

Now, let us move on to discuss India and Pakistan. This is a very important relationship to understand.

Before the 1947 Partition, Pakistan was a part of India. The Partition was a legacy of the colonial era that continues to shape the present. Let me note for now that Pakistan was founded on a religious basis, unlike India; this will be explored further in Grade 8. But suffice to say that these nations share one of the most complex relationships in South Asia. Since the Partition, several military conflicts and wars, including wars in 1948, 1965, and 1971, and full-scale conflicts like the Kargil War in 1999, have defined an ongoing tension. In particular, frequent terrorist attacks launched against India with the support of the Pakistan army have prevented normal relations between the two countries.

The border between the two nations stretches across the Indian states of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Punjab, and the union territories of Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh. It is not just a geographical line, but also a symbol of shared heritage as well as a tragically divided history.

This tumultuous journey has also been marked by attempts at peace, such as periods of trade and the opening of pilgrimage routes for Hindu or Sikh pilgrims — religious and cultural landmarks of a shared past that lives on. The Katas Raj temple complex in Pakistan's Punjab is one such example, linked to the Mahabharata and containing a sacred pond. Other examples include several ancient Hindu, Buddhist, and Sikh shrines, such as the Hinglaj Mata Mandir in Balochistan. Besides, languages, cuisines, music, and festivals continue to bridge the border.

Now, let me tell you about something very important called the Kartarpur Corridor. The Kartarpur Corridor is a visa-free border crossing between India and Pakistan, created to allow Indian pilgrims to visit the Gurdwara Darbar Sahib in Kartarpur, Pakistan. Pilgrims using the corridor do not need a visa, only a permit, which makes it easier for thousands of people to visit the gurdwara. This gurdwara holds great religious significance as it is the final resting place of Guru Nanak Dev, the founder of Sikhism, who spent the last 18 years of his life there. For decades, Indian devotees could only view this holy site from a distance, using binoculars set up near the border at Dera Baba Nanak in Punjab. The idea for a corridor was first proposed in the 1990s but only became a reality in 2019, when the corridor was officially opened to mark Guru Nanak's 550th birth anniversary. This is a beautiful example of how neighbours can work together for peace and religious harmony. Can the Kartarpur Corridor be a model for the possible progress of peace and dialogue? Only time will tell, but it gives us hope.

Now students, let us move on to discuss Bangladesh, which the chapter calls "a newborn neighbour." This is because Bangladesh was born in 1971 as the outcome of a war between India and Pakistan. Before that, it was known as East Pakistan.

India and Bangladesh have an enduring relationship shaped by a common history, culture, and language. History because, as we will see in higher grades, Bangladesh was born in 1971 as the outcome of a war between India and Pakistan. And language because Bangla is a language common to Bangladesh and India's state of West Bengal.

The land border between the two countries is even longer than India's border with China. It runs along the Indian states of West Bengal, Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, and Mizoram. India and Bangladesh also share several transboundary river systems originating from the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. The rivers play a major role in agriculture, fisheries, transportation, and the livelihoods of millions of people in both countries.

India and Bangladesh have built on their historical ties through strong diplomatic, economic, strategic, and cultural cooperation, making their relationship one of the most important in South Asia. The two countries also share a coastline, and therefore a maritime environment. The Sundarban National Park is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, with its protection and management coordinated by the two neighbours. A home to the Bengal tiger and many other species, it is important in terms of biodiversity, as well as climate. This is a great example of how two neighbours can work together to protect our environment.

Now, let us talk about Nepal, which the chapter describes as "in the lap of the Himalayas."

Nestled in the lap of the Himalayas, Nepal shares a long and open border with India, stretching across the Indian states of Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, and Sikkim. This geographical proximity has allowed for centuries of interaction and cooperation between the two nations, and the relationship is marked by shared heritage, spiritual linkages, cross-border movement, and political partnerships.

Culturally, the ties between India and Nepal are profound. Pilgrims from both countries regularly visit sacred sites across the border. The Pashupatinatha temple in Kathmandu, a major Hindu pilgrimage destination, draws thousands of Indian visitors every year. Festivals such as Dasain, Tihar, and Holi are observed with equal enthusiasm in both countries. These shared spiritual traditions strengthen the people-to-people bonds and reflect a rich tapestry of mutual cultural appreciation.

On the political front, India and Nepal have maintained close diplomatic relations, largely shaped by the 1950 Treaty of Peace and Friendship. This treaty provides for open borders, free movement of people and goods, and cooperation in areas such as defence and foreign policy. Cross-border migration and trade form another vital component of the India-Nepal relationship. The open border policy allows citizens to cross freely without passports or visas, enabling people from both sides to access education, healthcare, employment, and maintain family connections. Daily life in many border towns reflects this close interdependence, with vibrant markets and thriving trade.

Now, students, let me explain what an open border is. It is when people from two countries can travel across the border without a visa or passport. This enables families living on both sides to stay connected, and people to move easily for work, education, trade, or religious visits. However, India and Nepal work together to ensure the open border remains safe and is not misused. It is a symbol of trust and friendship between the two countries.

India is Nepal's largest trading partner, supplying essential goods such as petroleum, medicines, food items, and manufactured products. In return, Nepal exports agricultural produce, handicrafts, and garments. These exchanges not only contribute to economic development but also reinforce the social and economic integration of the border communities. The India-Nepal relationship stands as a unique example of neighbourhood cooperation shaped by a shared history, faith, geography, and a commitment to regional harmony.

Now, let us discuss Bhutan, which is called "the Land of the Thunder Dragon."

Bhutan, called "Drukyul" or "Land of the Thunder Dragon" by its inhabitants, is a small, landlocked Himalayan kingdom nestled between India and China. Bhutan's border with India touches the states of Sikkim, West Bengal, Assam, and Arunachal Pradesh. Over centuries, Bhutan has developed strong economic and cultural links with India.

Several important rivers originate in Bhutan and flow into India. They are not only vital for agriculture but also serve as the foundation for hydroelectric power generation, which is one of the most significant areas of bilateral cooperation. Some major power plants contribute to Bhutan's economic growth and also supply renewable energy to India.

Cultural and religious ties further strengthen the bond between the two nations. Rooted in the shared heritage of Buddhism, Bhutan and India maintain deep spiritual connections. Bhutanese pilgrims frequently visit sacred Buddhist sites in India, such as Bodh Gaya, Rajgir, Nalanda, Udayagiri, and Sikkim. The influence of Indian Buddhist masters such as Guru Padmasambhava, also known as Guru Rinpoche, who introduced the Vajrayana school of Buddhism to Bhutan in the 8th century CE, remains central to Bhutan's religious identity. Indeed, the dragon found on Bhutan's emblem and flag is said to symbolise the thunderous voice of the Buddha's teachings.

The relationship between India and Bhutan is marked by mutual respect, strategic cooperation, and cultural affinity. Their partnership exemplifies how shared geography, spiritual heritage, and economic collaboration can foster long-lasting and peaceful regional ties.

Now, students, let me tell you about the three main schools of Buddhism that grew in ancient India and migrated to many of her neighbours. This is important information that will help you understand the cultural connections between India and many countries.

Theravada, or the "School of the Elders," took shape around the 3rd century BCE. It is considered closest to the Buddha's original teachings and today has followers mainly in Sri Lanka and in Southeast Asia, especially Thailand and Myanmar.

Mahayana, or the "Great Vehicle," came into being around the 1st century BCE, incorporating new ideas and practices, such as a belief that the Buddha had a divine nature and could guide people in many forms. This school travelled to several countries, including China, Japan, and Korea, where several sub-schools, including Zen Buddhism, emerged on the way.

Vajrayana, or the "Diamond Vehicle," also generally known as "Tantric Buddhism," arose around the 6th century CE as an extension of Mahayana. It emphasised special techniques and secret teachings such as the use of mantras, mandalas, and visualisations of the Buddha and the bodhisattvas. Tibetan Buddhism derived from this school around the 7th century CE. Even today, these three schools of Buddhism are still followed in some parts of India, especially in the Himalayan states.

Now, let me also tell you that Bhutan developed the concept of Gross National Happiness Index as a more holistic measure of their nation's progress compared with prevailing concepts like Gross Domestic Product. This includes ideas of sustainability, good governance, and the promotion of culture, among others. The country assesses its progress periodically based on this index. This is a unique contribution of Bhutan to the world.

Now, let us move on to discuss Myanmar, which is described as "India's gateway to Southeast Asia."

India and Myanmar, earlier known as Burma, share a long-standing relationship grounded in historical, ethnic, and cultural connections, despite periods of political turmoil. As the birthplace of Buddhism, India holds special spiritual significance for the people of Myanmar, many of whom visit India during pilgrimages. The two countries are connected by a land border as well as a maritime boundary in the Bay of Bengal. India's northeastern states of Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, and Mizoram share borders with Myanmar, facilitating cross-border interaction and cooperation. These ties form the basis for sustained cultural exchanges and regional connectivity initiatives between the two nations.

Myanmar is also India's gateway to Southeast Asia. The Land Border Crossing Agreement of 2018 between India and Myanmar eased cross-border movement for people living in border areas, boosted trade, enhanced connectivity, and deepened people-to-people ties, especially between India's northeast and Myanmar. Over the past couple of years, however, some restrictions have been placed on the free movement across the land border on account of conflicts in these areas.

India has also helped Myanmar in restoring cultural heritage. A few years ago, India helped restore the Ananda temple in Bagan, among others, that had been damaged by earthquakes. India also gifted a 16-foot replica of the Sarnath statue of the Buddha to the Shwedagon Pagoda in Yangon, Myanmar.

Now, let us discuss Afghanistan, which is described as "a land-locked neighbour."

Afghanistan, a multiethnic landlocked country in south-central Asia, once shared a direct land border with India. However, the creation of Pakistan in 1947 has complicated access between the two countries. Despite these geopolitical challenges, India and Afghanistan have, by and large, maintained close and friendly ties rooted in shared history and culture, besides significant strategic interests.

Their connection dates back to ancient times, when the historic Uttarapatha trade route linked the Ganga plains to Central Asia via Afghanistan, fostering centuries of exchange in goods, religion, and ideas. Stretching from Gandhara, which is modern Kandahar, through major Indian cities like Takshashila, Varanasi, and Pataliputra, this cultural superhighway enabled the flow of Buddhism, Hinduism, art, and philosophy.

Before the spread of Islam in the 7th century CE, Afghanistan was a thriving centre of Buddhist and Hindu culture. Kingdoms like Kapisha and Zabul mirrored Indian systems of governance. The gigantic Buddhas of Bamiyan, carved into Afghan cliffs, stood as powerful symbols of Mahayana Buddhism's reach from India, reflecting the deep civilisational ties between the two regions. Sadly, they were destroyed in 2001. This was a great loss to humanity.

In recent decades, India and Afghanistan have continued to share strong people-to-people ties. India has supported education, healthcare, and infrastructure development in Afghanistan, including the construction of the Afghan Parliament building and the Zaranj-Delaram highway. These initiatives, despite ups and downs, reflect a wish to build on the long-shared history of friendship and mutual respect.

Now, students, we have covered all of India's land-based neighbours. Let us now move on to discuss India's maritime neighbours. But before that, let me tell you about an important organization. Many nations in India's neighbourhood came together in 1985 to form an association called SAARC, which stands for the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, in order to promote mutual interests, sociocultural, and economic progress. Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, the Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka are members. SAARC aims to share resources around development in science, education, health, and other areas. However, political tensions among some members have often disrupted its functioning. Several more such regional groups of nations centred on the Indian Ocean exist for other specific purposes.

Now, let us start with India's nearest maritime neighbour, which is Sri Lanka.

Sri Lanka is an island nation located to the southeast of India, with the two countries divided by a narrow stretch of sea known as the Palk Strait. At its nearest point, the distance between the two countries is only about 32 kilometres, making them close maritime neighbours with a long history of cultural contact, trade, and cooperation. Buddhism was introduced to Sri Lanka in the 3rd century BCE by Mahendra and Sanghamitra, the son and the daughter of Emperor Ashoka. Hinduism also travelled there, notably through its two epics. Even now, both countries continue to celebrate this shared spiritual and cultural heritage.

However, the relationship has not always been smooth. One difficult time was during Sri Lanka's civil war from the mid-1980s to around 2010. The war was mainly between the Sinhalese majority, whose language is Sinhala, and the Tamil minority, which has close cultural ties to India. Because of the fighting, many Tamil families had to leave Sri Lanka and move to south India, especially Tamil Nadu.

India and Sri Lanka share a multidimensional partnership that combines cultural closeness, historical ties, economic cooperation, and strategic collaboration. The relationship continues to grow through people-to-people exchanges, regional groupings, and shared goals for peace and development in South Asia.

Now, let us discuss the Maldives, which is described as "a nation of islets."

India and the Maldives share a close relationship based on geography, history, and culture. The Maldives, which consists of over 1,100 islets, or small islands, is only about 130 kilometres from Minicoy, an Indian island part of the Union Territory of Lakshadweep, making it an important neighbour, especially for trade and security in the Indian Ocean.

The two countries share centuries-old cultural ties shaped by maritime trade. Buddhism travelled to the Maldives early on, as established by archaeological finds of ancient Buddhist temples and inscriptions. Influences from Tamil Nadu and Kerala brought language, cuisine, and arts to the islands. Maldivian dishes like coconut curries and roshi reflect South Indian flavours, while the Boduberu dance echoes Tamil folk rhythms. Dhivehi, the official language of the Maldives, also called Maldivian, vocabulary and boat-building techniques also show South Indian roots.

India was one of the first countries to recognise the Maldives after it became independent in 1965. Over the years, the two nations have built strong ties in many areas, including defence, trade, and disaster relief. India's quick help during the 2004 tsunami, the 2014 water crisis in Male, the Maldives' capital, and the COVID-19 pandemic further strengthened this bond. These actions highlighted India's ability to respond quickly in times of crisis and further reinforced her role as the region's trusted first responder.

Now, let me tell you something interesting about the Dhivehi language. Dhivehi, the language of the Maldives, is a vibrant blend shaped by centuries of contact with Indian cultures. It borrows words from Sanskrit, Prakrit, Tamil, Malayalam, and Hindi. Raajje, which means king, and mas, which means fish, echo Sanskrit words raja and matsya, while dhoni, which means boat, and kukulhu, which means chicken, share roots with Tamil and Malayalam. Modern Hindi words like filmu have entered everyday use, thanks to Bollywood. Dhivehi reflects the Maldives' rich history as a maritime hub shaped by Indian linguistic and cultural influences.

As an island nation, the Maldives is highly vulnerable to the effects of climate change, including a rise in sea level which could reach 1 metre by the end of the century, partly submerging many of its islands. This nation is a member of the International Solar Alliance, an Indian initiative, which shares research technology on solar energy. This joint effort towards sustainability is another example of the long-term relationship between the two countries.

Now, let us discuss India and Thailand. The chapter has a very interesting heading for this section: "From Dwaraka to Dwaravati and Ayodhya to Ayutthaya."

India and Thailand are closely linked through maritime routes and regional geography. Sharing a maritime boundary, the two countries have been connected since ancient times through trade and cultural exchange. As early as the 3rd century BCE, Indian traders and scholars sailed to what is now Thailand, exchanging goods such as spices and textiles, while also bringing religious and cultural ideas that would deeply influence the region.

Indeed, the impact of Indian culture is reflected in the names of later Thai kingdoms. The Dwaravati culture, which flourished from the 6th to the 11th centuries CE, derived its name from a Sanskrit word for "that which has gates," directly referencing Dwaraka, Krishna's city described in the Mahabharata. Much later, the Ayutthaya Kingdom, founded in 1351, was named after the ancient Indian city of Ayodhya, the birthplace of Rama according to the Ramayana. This choice of place names reflecting Indian traditions illustrates the profound impact of Indian civilisation on Thailand's history and culture.

Monarchs of the current Chakri dynasty have all been named after Rama. The current king, for instance, is Rama X, that is, the tenth King Rama in this dynasty.

Cultural ties were further strengthened by the shared heritage of Buddhism and Hinduism. Indian monks, scholars, and texts played a central role in shaping the religious and philosophical foundations of Thai society. Theravada Buddhism is widely practiced there, while Hindu deities and stories from Indian epics are also integrated into Thai royal ceremonies, dance forms, and literature.

The India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway is a modern effort to revive and strengthen these age-old connections. Stretching from India's state of Manipur through Myanmar and into Thailand, this highway improves overland connectivity, enhances regional trade, and supports greater cooperation among the countries involved.

Now, let us discuss the relationship between India and Malaysia.

Relations between India and Malaysia are rooted in historical, cultural, and economic linkages dating back over two millennia, when the Malay Peninsula was connected to India through sea routes across the Bay of Bengal. Hindu and Buddhist cultural influences began early on, with names such as "Srivijaya Kingdom." Around the 4th century CE, the region adopted a script based on India's Brahmi script. Such influences remain visible in Malaysian society through art and literature in particular, even though by the 15th century Islam became the predominant religion. In the 19th and 20th centuries, a large number of Indian workers, mainly from south India, migrated to Malaysia to work as labour on the rubber plantations. The Malaysian Indian community remains prominent today with 9 per cent of the population being of Indian origin.

India is one of Malaysia's largest trading partners, with collaborations in palm oil, energy, infrastructure, and information technology. The two nations are also strategic partners, working closely on regional security and maritime stability. Many Indian organisations working in areas of manufacturing, information technology, research, tourism, and education have set up collaborations with local companies, furthering economic ties.

Now, let me ask you something. The chapter has a "Let's Explore" section about Singapore. It says: "Seeing that Tamil is one of Singapore's official languages, what does this suggest to you about the relationship between south India and Singapore?" This suggests that there have been strong historical and cultural connections between south India and Singapore, probably through trade and migration. Tamil is one of the four official languages of Singapore, which shows the significant Indian community there and the deep cultural ties.

Now, let us discuss Singapore, which is called "the Lion City."

The name of Singapore derives from "Singapuram" or "lion city," which was the name of an ancient kingdom just off the southern tip of present-day Malaysia. Just like Thailand and Malaysia, it had close cultural and commercial ties with India, with Buddhist monks as well as traders visiting the region a few centuries BCE. After many fluctuations, Singapore became a British colony, then a part of Malaysia, and eventually a separate nation in 1965.

Singapore has served as a benchmark for urban planning and maintenance. The citizens play an important role in keeping the streets litter-free. It helps that anyone found throwing garbage on the street, disrespecting traffic rules or indulging in jaywalking will be fined heavily. With a focus on wellbeing, the city has many people-friendly and sustainability-oriented features such as parks, walkways, terrace gardens, and so on.

Singapore's contacts with India remain vibrant in several areas. In recent years, the island nation has become one of the largest foreign investors in India, especially in infrastructure and technology sectors, and many Indian companies have set up offices in Singapore. Singapore receives large numbers of Indian tourists and is one of the preferred destinations of Indian students for higher studies.

India's presence also remains visible in cultural areas, from art to cuisine to religion. Ethnically, about 9 per cent of Singaporean residents are of Indian origin, many of whom live in an area of Singapore called "Little India."

Now, let us discuss Indonesia, which is described as "the Indonesian archipelago."

India and Indonesia, separated by the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea, are close maritime neighbours with a long history of cultural, religious, and commercial exchange. Indonesia is not a single landmass: it is actually an archipelago, that is, an extensive group of islands. In this case, it is several large islands and over 17,000 smaller ones. The two neighbouring nations have a legacy of trade and sociocultural interaction that dates back to early maritime trade between Indian kingdoms and the large islands of Java and Sumatra over 2,000 years ago. Collaborations between India's ancient university of Nalanda and the ancient Indonesian Muara Jambi temple complex further strengthened the bond. Later, Islam travelled to Indonesia from the shores of India.

The shared history and culture, and vision for the future, have played a significant role in expanding bilateral relations. In present times, India and Indonesia work closely in regional groups to promote peace, trade, and sustainable development in the Indo-Pacific region. Strategic cooperation has also grown stronger, especially in areas like maritime security, defence, and disaster relief. Both countries have large coastlines and shared concerns about piracy, climate change, and the protection of sea lanes, which makes their partnership especially important.

Now, let me tell you about something interesting. A stupa is a Buddhist shrine, often built in the shape of a dome, that keeps sacred relics, either of the Buddha himself, of senior monks, or of other revered figures. The Borobudur Stupa, built in stone in the 8th and 9th centuries CE, is unique not only for its huge dimensions and pyramidal shape in five enormous platforms, but also because it harbours over 500 statues of the Buddha and many smaller stupas. Moreover, its highly geometric design replicates a mandala. Mandalas are traditional Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain geometric symbols used in various rituals and generally symbolising the entire cosmos.

Now, let us discuss India and Iran, which is described as "an Ancient Neighbour."

India and Iran have shared close ties since the Bronze Age. Trade and cultural exchanges took place early between India and the rugged Iranian plateau through land routes passing through present-day Pakistan and Afghanistan. Gradually, such routes became part of the Silk Route, with people, goods, and ideas moving back and forth, connecting the two lands in the fields of language, literature, art, architecture, food, and so on. Sea routes were also used, since Iran's ports were within easy reach of India's west coast.

The Avesta, the ancient sacred text of Zoroastrianism, has parallels with India's Rigveda. Indian texts such as the Mahabharata mention Persians under the name Parasika, and the later Persian language, which belongs to the same language family as Sanskrit, was used as court language in India by the Mughals and other rulers. Of course, the Parsis of India have been a living link with the ancient Persian culture.

In modern times, India and Iran have cooperated in many areas such as trade, energy, and transport. India is helping to develop Iran's Chabahar Port, which gives India better access to Afghanistan and Central Asia. Despite international challenges, both countries continue to engage with each other as important neighbours in Asia.

Now, let us discuss Oman, which is described as "the Land of Copper."

Located on the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula at the intersection of the Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea, Oman shares maritime boundaries with India and holds significant strategic importance. As a key partner in India's engagement with the Gulf region, Oman plays an important role in regional forums.

The relationship between India and Oman is rooted in shared geography, history, and cultural ties, with people-to-people contact dating back over 5,000 years, during the time of the Indus or Harappan civilisation. As Oman is rich in copper, it is thought that Harappan traders brought back ingots of the metal to the coppersmiths of the Indus-Sarasvati cities. An ingot is a lump or block of metal put into a shape convenient for transport and reworking.

Over 10 per cent of the population of Oman is of Indian origin. Merchant communities from north-western parts of India settled there over the past centuries. There is an indigenous population of Indians living in Oman. The Hindu community was allowed to build a Shiva temple in the early 20th century.

Moreover, Oman is India's closest defence partner in the Gulf, being the first in the region where India holds joint military exercises with all three armed forces. The two countries work together on Indian Ocean maritime security.

Now students, before we move on to the questions and activities, let me summarize what we have learned so far.

India and her neighbours share centuries of cultural, spiritual, religious, and commercial exchanges. India's schools of thought and belief, arts, literature, and architecture left a visible cultural imprint across countries of Southeast Asia. Ancient trade routes like the Uttarapatha, Dakshinapatha, the Silk Route, and spice routes connected India with Central Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Arabian Peninsula, resulting in trade and cultural exchanges with all those regions. India spread her traditions peacefully through trade, pilgrimage, and culture. Today, regional connectivity projects aim to revive these historical links. Besides, Indian films, music, and television often contribute to sustained bonds, in addition to shared strategic and trade interests.

Now, students, let us go through the questions and activities at the end of the chapter. I will answer each question in detail.

Question 1: Explain who a maritime neighbour is with two examples with respect to India.

A maritime neighbour is a country that is connected to another country by a shared sea or ocean, even without a direct land border. For example, Sri Lanka is a maritime neighbour of India. Although they do not share a land border, they are separated by the Palk Strait, which is only about 32 kilometres wide at its narrowest point. Another example is the Maldives, which consists of over 1,100 islands and is about 130 kilometres from Minicoy, an Indian island in the Lakshadweep archipelago. Both these countries are connected to India through maritime routes and are considered India's maritime neighbours.

Question 2: How has Buddhism created links with India's neighbours? Give examples to explain your answer.

Buddhism has created deep and lasting links between India and many of her neighbours. Let me give you several examples.

First, Buddhism travelled from India to China around the 1st century CE via trade and pilgrimage routes. Indian monks like Bodhidharma, Dharmakshema, and Kumarajiva carried Buddhist teachings to China, while Chinese monks like Faxian and Xuanzang travelled to Indian centres of learning. This created strong spiritual and intellectual ties between the two countries.

Second, Buddhism was introduced to Sri Lanka in the 3rd century BCE by Mahendra and Sanghamitra, the children of Emperor Ashoka. This created a lasting Buddhist tradition in Sri Lanka that continues to this day.

Third, Theravada Buddhism spread from India to Sri Lanka, Thailand, Myanmar, and other Southeast Asian countries. Mahayana Buddhism spread to China, Japan, and Korea. Vajrayana Buddhism spread to Tibet and then to Bhutan. All these different schools of Buddhism originated in India and then spread to neighbouring countries, creating cultural and religious links that last to this day.

Fourth, in Thailand, the Dwaravati culture and the Ayutthaya Kingdom were named after Indian cities, showing the deep influence of Indian culture, particularly Buddhist culture, on Thailand.

Fifth, in Indonesia, the Borobudur Stupa, one of the world's largest Buddhist monuments, was built in the 8th and 9th centuries CE, showing the influence of Indian Buddhism on Indonesian culture.

These examples clearly show how Buddhism has created strong links between India and her neighbours.

Question 3: What does 'open border' policy mean? How does the India–Nepal 'open border' policy affect the lives of people living along the border?

An open border policy means that people from two countries can travel across the border without a visa or passport. This enables families living on both sides to stay connected, and people to move easily for work, education, trade, or religious visits.

The India-Nepal open border policy has a significant impact on the lives of people living along the border. First, it allows free movement of people, which means families separated by the border can easily visit each other. Second, it enables people to cross the border for work and education. Many people from Nepal work in India, and many Indians work in Nepal. Third, it facilitates trade. Border towns have vibrant markets where people from both countries buy and sell goods. Fourth, it allows religious pilgrims to easily visit sacred sites on both sides of the border. For example, Indian pilgrims can easily visit the Pashupatinatha temple in Kathmandu, and Nepali pilgrims can visit various temples in India. However, India and Nepal work together to ensure the open border remains safe and is not misused. It is a symbol of trust and friendship between the two countries.

Question 4: The chapter says, "Being neighbours is not just about geography." Explain this statement with an example.

This statement means that being neighbours is not just about sharing a land border or being close geographically. It is also about cultural connections, historical ties, trade relationships, and people-to-people bonds.

For example, India and Nepal share a long land border, but their relationship goes far beyond geography. They have deep cultural ties, including shared festivals like Dasain, Tihar, and Holi. They have religious connections, with pilgrims from both countries visiting sacred sites across the border. They have an open border policy that allows free movement of people. They have trade relationships, with India being Nepal's largest trading partner. And they have political ties, shaped by the 1950 Treaty of Peace and Friendship. So, even though they are neighbours geographically, what makes them really neighbours is all these cultural, historical, and people-to-people connections.

Another example is India and Indonesia. They do not share a land border, but they are connected through centuries of trade, cultural exchange, and religious ties. Indian traders visited Java and Sumatra over 2,000 years ago. Buddhism and Hinduism spread to Indonesia from India. The Borobudur Stupa in Indonesia is a testament to these connections. Today, they work together on regional security and maritime stability. So, even without a land border, they are neighbours in a very real sense.

Question 5: What are the different ways in which India has helped smaller countries in her neighbourhood? Explain with examples.

India has helped smaller countries in her neighbourhood in many different ways. Let me give you some examples.

First, India has provided disaster relief. For example, during the 2004 tsunami, India provided assistance to Sri Lanka and the Maldives. During the 2014 water crisis in Male, the capital of the Maldives, India provided help. During the COVID-19 pandemic, India provided vaccines and medical supplies to many neighbouring countries.

Second, India has helped with infrastructure development. For example, India helped construct the Afghan Parliament building and the Zaranj-Delaram highway in Afghanistan. India is helping develop Iran's Chabahar Port, which will give better access to Afghanistan and Central Asia.

Third, India has helped with cultural heritage restoration. For example, India helped restore the Ananda temple in Bagan, Myanmar, which had been damaged by earthquakes. India also gifted a replica of the Sarnath statue of the Buddha to the Shwedagon Pagoda in Yangon, Myanmar.

Fourth, India has provided economic assistance and trade. India is Nepal's largest trading partner, supplying essential goods such as petroleum, medicines, food items, and manufactured products. India has also provided lines of credit and economic assistance to Bangladesh, Bhutan, and other neighbours.

Fifth, India has provided security cooperation. For example, India and Bhutan cooperate closely on security matters. India and Oman work together on maritime security in the Indian Ocean.

These examples show that India helps its neighbours in many different ways, not just through economic or military assistance, but also through cultural ties, disaster relief, and regional cooperation.

Question 6: How do shared challenges become opportunities for cooperation? Were there examples in this chapter to illustrate this?

Shared challenges can become opportunities for cooperation when countries work together to address common problems. This is because when countries face similar challenges, they have a reason to come together and find solutions that benefit everyone.

Yes, there are several examples in this chapter that illustrate this.

First, consider the Sundarbans, which is a shared ecosystem between India and Bangladesh. Both countries face the challenge of climate change and environmental degradation. They have cooperated to protect this UNESCO World Heritage Site, which is home to the Bengal tiger and many other species. This cooperation has brought the two countries closer together.

Second, consider the issue of maritime security. Both India and Indonesia have large coastlines and share concerns about piracy, climate change, and the protection of sea lanes. They work together on maritime security, defence, and disaster relief. This cooperation helps both countries address their shared challenges more effectively.

Third, consider the issue of disaster relief. When the Maldives faced a water crisis in 2014, India responded quickly to help. When the COVID-19 pandemic struck, India provided vaccines and medical supplies to many neighbours. These acts of assistance strengthen relationships and create opportunities for further cooperation.

Fourth, consider the India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway. This project aims to improve connectivity between the three countries. By working together on this project, they are addressing the shared challenge of improving regional connectivity and trade.

These examples show that when countries face shared challenges, they can turn them into opportunities for cooperation, which ultimately benefits everyone involved.

Question 7: If borders were drawn only by culture and connections, how would the map look different?

This is a thought-provoking question, students. If borders were drawn only by culture and connections, the map would look quite different from what we see today.

First, the borders between India and Nepal would probably be more fluid. The two countries share deep cultural ties, including shared festivals, religious sites, and languages. If borders were drawn by culture, the border regions might be more integrated, with people moving freely and sharing resources.

Second, the India-Pakistan border might look different. Despite the political division, the two countries share cultural ties, including shared cuisines, music, festivals, and religious sites. The Kartarpur Corridor is an example of how cultural connections can bridge political borders. If borders were drawn by culture, these shared cultural zones might be more connected.

Third, the borders between India and Bangladesh might be more integrated. The two countries share a common language (Bengali), common cultural traditions, and shared river systems. If borders were drawn by culture, these connections might be reflected in the border.

Fourth, the borders between India and countries like Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, and other Southeast Asian countries might be more connected through maritime cultural zones. These countries share Buddhist and Hindu cultural influences from India. If borders were drawn by culture, these maritime connections might be emphasised more.

Fifth, there might be cultural corridors that cut across current national borders. For example, the Buddhist cultural zone might connect India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and Indonesia. The Islamic cultural zone might connect India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Indonesia.

However, it is important to remember that culture and connections are not the only factors that determine borders. History, politics, economics, and geography also play important roles. But this thought experiment helps us understand that borders are not just geographical lines — they are also shaped by human connections and cultural ties.

Now, students, for Question 8, the chapter asks you to do several activities on blank maps. Since this is an audio lesson, I cannot draw maps for you, but I can guide you on how to do these activities.

First, on a blank map of South Asia and the surrounding region, label India's neighbours. These include Pakistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and the Maldives. You should also include other maritime neighbours like Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Iran, and Oman.

Second, draw arrows showing cultural flows between India and her neighbours. For example, draw an arrow from India to Thailand showing the flow of Buddhism and Hindu culture. Draw an arrow from India to Indonesia showing the flow of Buddhism and Hinduism. Draw arrows showing the flow of languages, cuisines, festivals, and religious traditions between India and her neighbours.

Third, imagine and redraw new "borders of friendship" that connect neighbours through rivers, trade routes, or cultural zones. For example, you could draw a line connecting the Ganga-Brahmaputra river system that flows through India and Bangladesh. You could draw lines connecting the ancient trade routes like the Silk Route and the spice routes. You could draw circles around cultural zones, such as a Buddhist cultural zone connecting India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and Indonesia.

Fourth, collect pictures of the flags of the countries listed in this chapter and write your observations. You will notice that many of these flags have symbols that are connected to India. For example, the flag of Bhutan has a dragon, which is a symbol from Buddhist mythology that is also present in Indian culture. The flag of Thailand has colours that are similar to the Indian flag in some ways. The flag of Indonesia has a symbol called Garuda, which is the vehicle of Vishnu, a Hindu deity. These observations will help you understand the cultural connections between India and her neighbours.

Now students, we have come to the end of this chapter. Let me give you a brief summary of everything we have learned.

In this chapter, we learned about India's neighbours, both land-based and maritime. We started by understanding what makes a country a neighbour — it can be through shared land borders or through shared seas. We learned about India's land-based neighbours: China, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar, and Afghanistan. We learned about India's maritime neighbours: Sri Lanka, the Maldives, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Iran, and Oman.

We learned about the cultural, historical, and economic ties between India and each of these neighbours. We learned about Buddhism and how it spread from India to China, Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, and beyond. We learned about the open border between India and Nepal and how it affects the lives of people living along the border. We learned about the Kartarpur Corridor and how it promotes peace and religious harmony. We learned about the Sundarbans and how India and Bangladesh cooperate to protect this shared ecosystem. We learned about the India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway and how it aims to improve regional connectivity.

We learned about regional organizations like SAARC and how they promote cooperation among South Asian countries. We learned about the concept of regionalism and how it helps create peace, stability, and shared progress.

We also learned about the three main schools of Buddhism — Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana — and how they spread to different parts of the world. We learned about the Borobudur Stupa in Indonesia and the Dwaravati and Ayutthaya kingdoms in Thailand, which show the deep influence of Indian culture on Southeast Asia.

We learned about how India has helped its neighbours through disaster relief, infrastructure development, cultural heritage restoration, economic assistance, and security cooperation. We learned about how shared challenges can become opportunities for cooperation.

Finally, we thought about how the map would look different if borders were drawn only by culture and connections.

This chapter has taught us that being a good neighbour is not just about geography. It is about working together, sharing cultural ties, helping each other in times of need, and building a peaceful and prosperous region. India has a long history of cultural and trade connections with her neighbours, and these connections continue to shape the present and will shape the future.

Thank you for listening to this lesson. I hope you have learned a lot about India and her neighbours. Remember, our neighbours are not just countries on a map — they are partners in our shared journey towards peace and prosperity. Until next time, goodbye and keep learning!