Empires And Kingdoms: 6th To 10th Centuries

Hello my dear students, welcome to today's history lesson. I am so happy to see you all here, ready to travel back in time and explore one of the most fascinating periods in Indian history. Today, we are going to study Chapter 3 of your Social Science textbook, and the title is "Empires and Kingdoms: 6th to 10th Centuries".

Now, let me tell you, this is a period that is absolutely crucial for understanding how India shaped itself after the great Gupta Empire. You might remember from your previous chapters that the Gupta period is often called the "Golden Age" of Indian history. But what happened after the Guptas? Did India simply fall into darkness as some historians once suggested? Well, my dear students, nothing could be further from the truth! As we will discover together, this was actually a period of tremendous regional growth, cultural flourishing, and political experimentation. India did not decline after the Guptas — she transformed, she diversified, and she grew in ways that would define the subcontinent for centuries to come.

So, let us begin our journey. Imagine you are a young traveller setting off on an adventure across India, about 1,500 years ago. The mighty Gupta Empire has lost its dominance, and you are about to discover a land buzzing with new ideas, art, and culture. Your first stop is a city by the River Ganga called Kannauj, where a powerful king hosts poets and scholars. A few weeks later, you reach the Chālukya kingdom in the Deccan, where you see magnificent temples and lively cities. In the far south, the Pallavas are carving entire temples out of rock at Māmallapuram, while in Bengal, the Pālas are supporting great universities such as Vikramaśīlā. This is the India you will discover today.

Now, let us look at the big questions this chapter asks us to consider. First, what major changes characterised this period? Second, how did the political, cultural, and religious developments shape India during this period? And third, what was the impact of foreign invasions and interactions on Indian society and polity during this period? Keep these three questions in your mind as we go through the chapter, because by the end, you should be able to answer each one of them.

Let us start by looking at the timeline. This will help you understand when different events and dynasties appeared. In the year 606 CE, Harṣhavardhana's rule begins at Kannauj. In the 6th century, the Chālukya dynasty rises. Between 630 and 644, the famous Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang travels in India. In 637, the first Arab naval attack is repulsed at Thana. Around 650, the Bhakti tradition starts in south India. In 712, the Arabs conquer Sindh. In 750, the Pāla dynasty rises. During the 8th and 9th centuries, we see the famous Tripartite Struggle over Kannauj. And in the 9th century, the Cholas emerge as a dominant power. This timeline gives us a framework for understanding the sequence of events.

Now, let us begin with one of the most remarkable rulers of this period — Harṣhavardhana. As we look at northern India at this time, we find this great king ascending the throne in 606 CE at Kannauj. He belonged to the Puṣyabhūti dynasty, also known as the Vardhana dynasty, whose earlier capital was Sthāneśvara, which is present-day Thanesar in Haryana. But Harṣha moved the capital to Kannauj, also known as Kānyakubja, in present-day Uttar Pradesh.

Harṣhavardhana expanded his empire over large parts of northern and eastern India, although its precise extent is not known with certainty. He was a fine poet and dramatist, and he is assumed to be the author of three plays composed in classical Sanskrit. These plays weave love stories with courtly life, or themes of sacrifice and other high ethical values. While these are stories, historians use such literature to extract interesting details about the culture and society of those times — from systems of governance to social diversity, technologies, foods, and clothing.

Harṣha also patronised scholars like Bāṇabhaṭṭa, also known as Bāṇa, who wrote Kādambarī, a beautiful literary work and one of the world's first novels. Bāṇa also composed a biography of Harṣha titled Harṣhacharita. Inscriptions depict Harṣha as a devotee of Śhiva, but according to other sources, he was also deeply attached to Buddhism, while showing respect for all schools of thought and belief. This shows us that Harṣha was a broad-minded ruler who did not discriminate between religions.

Now, students, let me tell you about an important historical source for this period — the travelogue of Xuanzang. You might remember from your earlier chapters that in the 5th century, a Chinese pilgrim named Faxian left a valuable account of the Gupta era. Now, two centuries later, another Chinese pilgrim named Xuanzang set out on his journey to India and travelled around the subcontinent between 630 and 644. Just like Faxian, his motivation for undertaking such a long and difficult journey was to visit sacred Buddhist sites and learn doctrines from Indian teachers. He brought back to China more than 600 manuscripts of Buddhist texts in Sanskrit, carried by 20 horses, and set about translating them into Chinese. He also left a meticulous account of his journey, in which he recorded important details about politics, diplomacy, culture, and religion in the kingdoms he crossed. His travelogue is a major source of information for historians of this period.

Harṣhavardhana welcomed this Chinese pilgrim to his court. In Xuanzang's honour, he held an assembly at Kannauj, attended by kings and leaders of many religious sects. Xuanzang described Kannauj as a beautiful and prosperous city, and Harṣha as a just and energetic ruler who maintained a vast army and was often engaged in military campaigns. Every five years, he held an assembly at Prayāga, which is present-day Prayagraj, at the confluence of the Ganga and Yamuna rivers, where, after performing sacred rites, he gave away much wealth, offering it to Buddhists, Brahmins, and the poor. This ceremony is similar to the Ashvamedha sacrifice we studied earlier, where a powerful king performed rituals and distributed wealth to assert his supremacy.

Harṣha attempted to extend his empire southward beyond the Narmada River, but he was held in check by Pulakeśhin II of the powerful Chālukya dynasty, whom we will meet soon. Harṣha also dreamed of uniting northern India, but achieved only mixed success. Although he formed an alliance with the Varman dynasty of Kāmarūpa, which is present-day Assam with their capital Prāgjyotiṣha close to today's Guwahati, conflicts with neighbouring kingdoms continued.

Now, students, after Harṣha's death in 647 CE, north India saw much political turmoil. Kannauj became the centre of a long, indecisive struggle, which historians call the "Tripartite Struggle." The three warring parties were the Pālas from the east, the Gurjara-Pratihāras from the west, and the Rāṣhṭrakūṭas from the Deccan. During the 8th and 9th centuries, these three powers repeatedly warred against each other, with fluctuating outcomes and no lasting victor. The reason Kannauj was so attractive was its strategic location on the Ganga River, which gave control over the rich Gangetic plains and the trade routes connecting north and south India.

Let us now study each of these three powers in detail, starting with the Pālas.

After Harṣha's death, the Bengal region fell into disorder until, according to an inscription, the people chose Gopāla in 750 CE to restore stability. He was the first king of the Pāla dynasty, which soon ruled over much of eastern India. His successor, Dharmapāla, expanded the Pāla Empire over much of eastern and northern India. He became known as a great patron of Mahāyāna Buddhism, founding major monasteries such as Vikramaśīla in present-day Bihar and Somapura in present-day Bangladesh. Besides, just like Harṣha, the Pālas continued to patronise Nālandā, which you learned about in the Gupta era chapter. Those large monasteries were, in effect, the universities of those times and attracted numerous students, sometimes from far away, even beyond India.

The Pāla Empire flourished economically thanks not only to internal trade, but also through brisk maritime trade through its seaports on the east coast, which provided pathways to Southeast Asia. Though the empire later declined, it left a lasting legacy of strong governance and learning in parts of eastern and northern India.

Now, let me tell you something very interesting about Vikramaśīlā university. Dharmapāla founded it in the late 8th century on the banks of the Ganga. It remained a great centre of learning for more than four centuries. The university had six colleges, monasteries, temples, lecture halls, and a vast library. Nearly 3,000 scholars studied subjects such as grammar, logic, Hindu and Buddhist philosophy, learning and rituals. Admission was highly selective, as each college had a dvārapaṇḍita, which means "scholar gatekeeper," who tested students before allowing them entry. Vikramaśīla was especially known for its ties with Tibet. One of its famous teachers travelled to Tibet, translated Sanskrit works into Tibetan, and played a major role in shaping Tibetan Buddhism, also called Vajrayāna Buddhism.

An important point to note here, students, is that some historians state that Dharmapāla was Buddhist, and he certainly patronised Buddhist learning and institutions. But we should keep in mind that in ancient India, the concept of religion was more fluid than it is today. Except perhaps for monks and nuns, people could feel at ease with various belief systems and practise different modes of worship at the same time. Indeed, people often did not regard belief systems involving Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism as separate, but rather as branches of a common philosophical tree. Besides, rulers often took pride in patronising several schools of thought. We saw the case of the Guptas in your earlier chapter, and Harṣha gives us one more example of such broad-mindedness. Similarly, several successors of Dharmapāla, though still patronising Buddhist institutions, were said to be devotees of Śhiva.

Now, let us move to the Gurjara-Pratihāras. This dynasty was founded in the mid-8th century CE by Nāgabhaṭa I. The name "Gurjara" probably referred to a region between Gujarat and Rajasthan. As we will see later in this chapter, the Gurjara-Pratihāras gained fame for pushing back Arab invasions into northwest India. Their early capital was Bhillamāla, which is modern Bhinmal in western Rajasthan, and it seems to have shifted later to Ujjayinī.

In the 9th century, the celebrated Pratihāra ruler King Bhoja, a devotee of Viṣṇu, built an empire stretching from Punjab and Kathiawar in the west to Kannauj in the east, controlling most of north India. Bhoja was also known as "Mihira," which is a name of the Sun, and "Ādi Varāha," because Varāha is an avatar of Viṣṇu in the form of a boar. However, a century later, the Gurjara-Pratihāras suffered the destruction of Kannauj by Rāṣṭrakūṭa rulers, which hastened the disintegration of their empire. It was finally eliminated in the early 11th century by the Ghaznavids, whom we will meet in the next chapter.

Now, students, let us turn to the Rāṣṭrakūṭas. In the mid-8th century, Dantidurga became the first independent Rāṣṭrakūṭa ruler when he overthrew the Chālukyas in the Deccan. The Rāṣṭrakūṭas shifted their power centre to present-day Karnataka, with their capital at Mānyakheṭa, which is modern Malkheda. They were one of the most dominant powers for nearly two centuries, with their empire spanning much of the subcontinent. Dantidurga's successors campaigned successfully in north India, briefly occupying Kannauj.

The Rāṣṭrakūṭas found time and resources to create wonders. The Rāṣṭrakūṭa king Krishna I got the magnificent Kailāśhanātha temple, the largest rock-cut temple in India, carved out of a hillside at Ellora in present-day Maharashtra. The temple is not a construction but a gigantic sculpture, carved entirely out of a single rock! The Rāṣṭrakūṭas equally patronised Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain schools of thought, and encouraged learning and literature in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and Kannada.

In the 9th century, another Rāṣṭrakūṭa ruler, Amoghavarṣa I, took on the title "Nṛpatuṅga," which means "peak of kings." Despite frequent wars with neighbouring kingdoms, he managed to ensure peace and prosperity in his empire, and stability, since his reign lasted for 64 years! Amoghavarṣa Nṛpatuṅga is sometimes called a "Jain king" as he was strongly drawn to Jainism. However, he also patronised Hindu temples. He was a fine poet too, who composed works in Sanskrit and Kannada. In fact, students, if you ever visit central Bengaluru, you will find "Nrupatunga Road," named after this king, which is home to several government buildings and institutions.

An interesting point here is what the 10th-century Arab historian and traveller al-Masūdī said about a Rāṣṭrakūṭa ruler. He wrote, "His troops and elephants are innumerable. There is none among the rulers of Sindh and Hind who in his territory respects the Muslims as he does. In his kingdom, Islam is honoured and protected. And for them, mosques and congregational mosques, which are always full, have been built for offering prayers five times." This tells us that the Rāṣṭrakūṭas were remarkably tolerant of other religions and provided freedom to Muslims to practise their faith.

Now, while these three powerful dynasties — the Pālas, the Gurjara-Pratihāras, and the Rāṣṭrakūṭas — were involved in the tussle over Kannauj, that is, over central India and the Gangetic plains, other powers rose and fell in other parts of India. Let us now visit Kashmir, far to the north.

In the mid-8th century, a new power was stirring in the Himalayan kingdom of Kāshmīra, which is present-day Kashmir. Apart from inscriptions and coins, we learn about its successive rulers from Kalhaṇa, who authored Rājataraṅgiṇī, which literally means "the River of Kings." Kalhaṇa was a Kashmiri scholar and poet who composed this epic poem in Sanskrit in the 12th century. In it, he narrated the history of Kashmir's ruling dynasties from its beginnings to his own time.

Kalhaṇa also spells out his approach to history. He wrote, "My effort is to give a connected account where the narratives of past events have become fragmentary in many respects. I have examined eleven earlier works composed by former scholars containing the chronicles of kings. And by consulting inscriptions relating to temple consecrations, royal grants, laudatory records, and other written works, I have overcome many difficulties caused by errors." Through all these depictions, Kalhaṇa's purpose was not merely to record history as he understood it, but also to highlight the rulers' ethical values, or lack of them, as the case may be, so as to draw moral lessons from history. He wrote, "Those who are intent on harassing their subjects perish with their families; on the other hand, fortune waits on even the descendants of those who reinstate order where there is chaos."

Among the many kings and a few queens whose rule Kalhaṇa describes, Lalitāditya Muktāpīḍa of the Kārkoṭa dynasty is seen as a firm ruler. After him, however, Kashmir's political scene experienced many internal conflicts and shifts of power, including some rulers seizing the throne by force. In the late 10th century, for instance, Queen Diddā consolidated her power through strategic alliances but also, according to Kalhaṇa, by ruthlessly eliminating rivals, including her own grandsons. She founded a few towns, built several temples, and restored many more.

Now, students, I want you to think about what qualities Kalhaṇa thinks a historian should have. From his writings, we can see that he believed a historian should be thorough, consulting multiple sources including inscriptions and earlier works. He should give a connected account of events, not just fragmentary stories. And most importantly, he wrote, "That noble-minded poet is alone worthy of praise whose words, like that of a judge, remain free from love or hatred in relating the facts of the past." By "free from love or hatred," he means that a historian should not be biased towards or against any person or dynasty. This is very similar to what modern historians try to do — maintain objectivity. How would meeting this condition make a historian more reliable? Well, if a historian is biased, they might exaggerate the good deeds of people they like and hide or downplay their bad actions. A historian who is free from love and hatred gives us a more accurate picture of the past.

Despite Kashmir's mountainous geography, throughout history the kingdom remained well connected to the political and cultural developments elsewhere in India. During the period we consider here, Kashmir was a major centre for Sanskrit learning, philosophy, and the arts. A school of thought called Kashmir Śaivism produced several great scholars, such as Abhinavagupta, whose works on philosophy, poetry, arts, and aesthetics had a vast influence across India. Kashmir also served as a crucial bridge for Buddhist scholarship, with scholars, monks, and texts traveling between Kashmir and other parts of northern India, Tibet, and Central Asia. Kashmiri artisans, sculptors, and manuscript painters were in demand across north India and beyond.

Now, let us also remember the great scholar Ādi Śaṅkarācārya, the 8th-century scholar and teacher of the advaita vedānta school of philosophy. He taught that brahman is the ultimate reality or the pure consciousness, and that the world as we perceive it is māyā, which means illusion. He established four maṭhas, which are monasteries and centres of learning, at Badrinath, Puri, Dwarka, and Sringeri. Why do you think he chose four different corners of India rather than more central locations? The answer is that he wanted to spread his philosophy across the entire subcontinent, from the Himalayas in the north to the southern tip. By establishing centres in all four directions, he ensured that his teachings would reach people in every region.

Now, let us move to the Deccan and the south. We have already mentioned the Rāṣṭrakūṭas. Let us now study the Chālukyas, who were an important dynasty in the Deccan.

In the mid-6th century CE, Pulakeśhin I founded the Chālukya dynasty. Earlier in this chapter, we met his grandson, Pulakeśhin II, who not only stood in the way of Harṣha's southward ambitions but also considerably expanded the Chālukya kingdom. His capital was Vātāpi, which is present-day Badami in Karnataka, famous for its complex of magnificent Hindu and Jain cave temples.

A little further away, the earlier Chālukya capital, Āryapura, later known as "Ayyavole," present-day Aihole, is home to over a hundred Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain temples. One of them, a 7th-century Jain temple atop Meguti Hill, displays on its east wall a lengthy Sanskrit inscription in praise of the Chālukyas, especially King Pulakeśhin II. Its author, the court poet Ravikīrti, records Pulakeśhin II's victories over Harṣha and several rival kingdoms in a highly poetical style. But this inscription is not free from exaggerations, as some of the "facts" it presents are contradicted by other inscriptions! This shows us, students, that we must always be careful when using historical sources. Not everything written in ancient inscriptions is completely accurate. Historians must compare multiple sources to find the truth.

Xuanzang visited the Chālukya kingdom on his way to the South, and he mentioned that Pulakeśhin II's "beneficent actions are felt over a great distance and his subjects obey him with perfect submission." There is no doubt that in the early 7th century, most of India was dominated by two great imperial powers — Harṣhavardhana north of the Vindhyas and Pulakeśhin II south of them. However, Pulakeśhin II eventually tasted defeat at the hands of the Pallavas of Kānchī. By the mid-8th century, the Rāṣhṭrakūṭas had replaced the Chālukyas in the Deccan. A later revival of the dynasty in the west, from the 10th century onward, is known as the Western Chālukyas of Kalyāṇī, their new capital.

As the Chālukya empire of Badami declined, its eastern branch asserted independence and expanded its power in the eastern Deccan. They are known as the Eastern Chālukyas and ruled from Vengi in present-day Andhra Pradesh. They often clashed with the Rāṣhṭrakūṭas, experiencing both victories and defeats, as well as occasional alliances. The Eastern Chālukyas promoted several Hindu and Jain sects, as well as Buddhist centres, and Telugu and Kannada literature flourished under their rule.

Now, students, let us turn to the Pallavas, whom we have mentioned several times. With its capital at Kānchī, or Kānchipura, present-day Kanchipuram in Tamil Nadu, the dynasty reached its peak in the 7th century under Mahendravarman I and his son Narasimhavarman I. The latter was also known as "Mamalla," which means "wrestler" or "warrior." Indeed, it was he who defeated Pulakeśhin II and went on to capture Badami. However, he retreated, keeping the Tungabhadra River as an unwritten boundary between the two powers. He also sent a naval expedition to Sri Lanka to help a Sinhalese prince recover his lost throne.

Kanchipuram was not only an important cultural centre but also an economic hub, with trade in goods such as spices, textiles including silk, ivory, and other luxury goods. The Pallavas developed trade relations not only with Sri Lanka but also with much of Southeast Asia via several seaports, in particular Māmallapuram, also known as Mahabalipuram, where ancient Chinese, Persian, and Roman coins were found during excavations.

Xuanzang visited Kānchī and spoke of the existence of 100 Buddhist monasteries with 10,000 priests, and also mentioned 80 Hindu temples and the presence of many Jains. In his opinion, "the people are deeply attached to the principles of honesty and truth, and highly esteem learning."

The Pallavas created many temples and other structures. At Māmallapuram, elaborate rock-cut caves and monolithic temples were carved in a distinctive style, depicting deities or illustrating scenes associated with the Mahābhārata. Look at the granite relief at Māmallapuram depicting goddess Durgā about to slay the buffalo demon Mahiṣāsura. This panel has a highly dynamic three-dimensional composition, expressing Durgā's confident assault on the demon. Can you identify some of Durgā's many weapons? She holds a trident, a sword, a spear, and a discus, among others. Her vāhana, or vehicle, is the lion. What are the main differences between her attendants and the demon's attendants? Durgā's attendants look confident and supportive, while the demon's attendants look fearful and chaotic. What does the demon's slanted posture and general attitude indicate? It shows that he is struggling and about to be defeated.

The Pallavas were patrons of Jain, Vaishnavite, and Shaivite schools of thought. They promoted both Sanskrit and Tamil literature and hosted great poets such as Daṇḍin, who wrote elaborate Sanskrit poetry. Mahendravarman I himself was a fine poet who left a satirical Sanskrit play.

The Pallavas ruled over much of northern Tamil Nadu and southern Andhra Pradesh until the late 9th century, when they were finally overthrown by the Chola king Aditya I.

Now, let us go further south. Nearly a millennium before our period, the Pāṇḍya, Chola, and Chera kingdoms were mentioned in an edict of Aśoka as his southern neighbours. They also figured in the Sangam literature, which is the earliest collections of Tamil poetry. Then they seemed to disappear, eclipsed by other powers. Now they reemerge, shaping the South's political and cultural life, and often at war with each other.

The Pāṇḍyas rose to power by the 6th century. Allied with the Chālukyas and the Pallavas, they controlled much of southern Tamil Nadu and, for brief periods, northern parts of Sri Lanka. Their coins and inscriptions attest to maritime trade with Southeast Asia via ports such as Korkai. Their capital was Madurai, a vibrant cultural centre. They built many temples, created rock-cut temples, and patronised poets. In the 10th century, the mighty Cholas swept them aside, but they would re-emerge some three centuries later.

Along the Kerala coast, the Cheras, also known as Chera Perumals, maintained their independence despite their neighbours' military power.

Then came the Cholas, reborn under Vijayālaya in the 9th century. From his new capital at Tanjāvūr, now spelled "Thanjavur," he laid the foundation for a strong and prosperous kingdom. His son Aditya I expanded it by defeating the Pallavas, bringing most parts of present-day Tamil Nadu and parts of southern Andhra Pradesh under Chola control.

The Cholas ended up building one of the largest empires in south Indian history, known for its elaborate and efficient administration, its powerful navy, and grand temples. They patronised arts such as sculpture and architecture, and promoted Tamil as well as Sanskrit literatures. Their inscriptions make use of both languages. The fertile Kāveri delta, along with efficient irrigation techniques, ensured a steady agricultural output and contributed to the prosperity of the empire's heartland.

An interesting development during this period was that inscriptions began using both Sanskrit and regional languages simultaneously. In land grants, the ruler and his dynastic history were often praised in Sanskrit, while the operative details of the grant were recorded in the local language. Why do you think such inscriptions were written in two languages? The reason is that Sanskrit was the language of prestige and learning, used to assert the ruler's authority and connection to ancient traditions. But the local language was necessary so that common people could understand the details of the grant, such as what land was being given, to whom, and what were the conditions.

Now, let us discuss other developments during this period, starting with polity and administration. As we saw several times, the fall of large, unified empires gave way to smaller, decentralised kingdoms. Kings like the Chālukyas and Rāṣṭrakūṭas ruled their core regions directly, but governed other regions through subordinate rulers called sāmantas, the equivalent of tributaries or vassals. These sāmantas were indispensable, as they led armies and managed local administration. Yet, their loyalty could be fragile, especially when they felt that the empire's central authority was weakening. Some, like the Rāṣṭrakūṭas, once sāmantas under the Chālukyas, eventually grew powerful enough to overthrow their overlords.

Directly controlled territories were divided into provinces, which were called bhuktis or rāṣṭras, districts called maṇḍalas, and villages, with specific officials at every level. Villages, the lowest administrative units, were overseen by headmen, accountants, and local committees, and remained largely self-governed.

By the 9th century, south India saw the rise of assemblies at several levels. For example, the elaborate 10th-century inscriptions of the Cholas at Uttaramerur detail the selection process of members to the village sabhā. This showed the long continuity of democratic traditions in India, dating back 1,500 years to the janapadas.

Now, let us discuss trade, economy, and urbanisation. During this period, the land grant system that had begun under the Guptas expanded greatly. Kings, chiefs, royal family members, and vassals gave land to individuals, communities, and religious establishments, creating a new class of landholders. Many of these holders did not till the land themselves, suggesting that powerful intermediaries often exploited peasants, as several texts and inscriptions allude to.

Many grants aimed to bring uncultivated land under cultivation, expanding agriculture and crop diversity. Many small-scale and some large state-supported irrigation works were undertaken. The Pallavas, for example, built numerous tanks in Tamil Nadu, many of which are still functional today. Many inscriptions record the sponsorship of a well, a pond, or a tank, thereby elevating the donor's social status. With better irrigation and agricultural growth, cash crops thrived, supporting agro-based crafts and industries.

Alongside agriculture, trade and markets flourished in regional trade centres. Small traders handled local trade, while ship-owning merchants conducted long-distance commerce. From the 8th century onward, India's west coast saw brisk shipping with ports in present-day Iran, Iraq, and Africa's east coast, while India's east coast connected with Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, and all the way to Chinese ports. A similar activity prevailed on the east coast under the Cheras. A set of copper-plate inscriptions significantly refers to the presence of Christian, Muslim, and Jewish traders from West Asia, showing again how India was a hub of international trade.

Overall, Indian society remained largely rural and agrarian during this period. Although some historians have suggested urban decline during this period, the evidence paints a different and more complex picture. In north India, most older cities remained occupied, while new ones emerged. Xuanzang noted the decline of Kauśāmbī and Śhrāvastī, but described thriving cities like Sthāneśhvara, Kānyakubja, and Kāshī. In south India, cities continued to flourish as political, economic, and religious hubs, with temples acting as centres of commerce and ports fuelling maritime trade.

We also saw the rise of merchant guilds or associations. They continued to play a significant role, comprising traders, artisans, and moneylenders, and supporting religious and charitable activities. In south India, two major merchant guilds operated prominently: one was active in coastal and inland trade, while the other became the largest inter-regional merchant association.

Now, let us discuss social life. During this period, Indian society grew more complex and hence cannot be reduced to a simple description. The traditional jātis multiplied, with many new ones based on occupation or region. This created communities in which most people married within their group. Some local tribes, border populations, foreign migrants, and occupational or religious groups were absorbed into the varṇa-jāti system, while some communities, such as foreign traders, remained as outsiders.

Much of the data on the jātis comes from texts, and some from inscriptions, but overall there are many gaps and unanswered questions. Moreover, the system varied widely across regions, showing that varṇa and jāti were flexible rather than rigid. For instance, several sources indicate that the Pālas and the Kākatīyas, among other rulers, were originally Śūdras, but in the course of time, they would have been regarded as Kṣatriyas.

At the same time, terms like aspriśhya, which literally means "not to be touched," appeared in a few texts, pointing to discrimination against some communities regarded as "impure." This is confirmed by other sources, such as Xuanzang, who noted, "Butchers, fishers, dancers, executioners, and scavengers, and so on, have their abodes without the city. Their houses are surrounded by low walls, and form the suburbs."

Despite such divisions, different varṇas and jātis often functioned cooperatively, as they depended on each other's work and function, at least at the economic level. We will also see below the so-called "Bhakti Movement," which cut across all strata of the society. Several bhakti saints, for instance, were Śūdras.

Now, let me tell you how a professional group transforms into a jāti. Such a process was complex and could vary from region to region. Let us look at one example. The Kāyasthas, historically known as scribes or clerks, were initially a professional group open to different varṇas. In the 10th century, they became a distinct jāti. In parts of Bengal, certain Brāhmaṇa surnames such as Vasu, Ghosha, Datta, and Dama later came to be associated with Kāyasthas, indicating a fusion of Brāhmaṇa and non-Brāhmaṇa families. Over time, they married mainly within their group, forming the Kāyastha jāti.

As regards the position of women, it would also vary widely from one region to another and from one social layer to another. It is interesting to note that in his Harṣacharita, Bāṇabhaṭṭa showed women participating in many economic and social activities, working in agriculture and crafts, and, in courts, serving as entertainers, musicians, storytellers, and attendants. Many inscriptions record women making offerings to temples or getting water structures constructed.

During this period, several queens ascended to the throne. While most dynasties favoured male heirs, some, like the Bhauma-Karas in present-day Odisha, saw multiple female rulers, the most notable being Tribhuvana Mahadevi I in the 9th century. She strengthened the dynasty, suppressed rebellions, demonstrated strong administrative skills, patronised Hindu and Buddhist institutions and temples, and issued land grants under the title "Paramabhaṭṭārikā Mahārājādhirāja Tribhuvana Mahādevī," which means "supreme sovereign empress, great queen of the three worlds."

Now, let us discuss cultural life. By now, we have seen several rulers patronising different schools of thought — Hindu, Buddhist, or Jain — regardless of their own inclinations. Those religious traditions interacted in complex ways, sharing central concepts such as dharma and karma, sacred spaces, artistic motifs, and sometimes deities. They coexisted peacefully most of the time, despite occasional rivalries, as between Shaivites and Jainas in south India.

Around the 6th century, Tantric schools of thought emerged, emphasising rituals, meditation, mantras, and the worship of powerful deities, especially Shakti. Buddhism, partly influenced by Tantricism, thrived in eastern India, especially under the Pālas, thanks to its monastic universities that drew scholars from across Asia. But elsewhere, during this period, it declined as temple-based Hinduism and bhakti practices rose.

Supported by rulers and wealthy merchant communities, Jainism remained popular in western India and Karnataka. Monumental works from this period include the monolithic Bāhubalī at Shravanabelagola in Karnataka and the Jain cave temples at Ellora or Badami.

The Purāṇas, with their elaborate mythology and sacred geography, helped integrate local deities and regional myths into the broader pan-Indian cults, especially those of Śiva, Viṣhṇu, Kṛiṣhṇa and various devis. These traditions emphasised bhakti, which means personal devotion, over Vedic sacrifices and centred around temples, mathas, and pilgrimage sites.

From the 6th century onward, these traditions crystallised into what has been called the "Bhakti Movement." Bhakti, as devotion addressed to a deity, did exist much earlier, but what took place now, rather than an organised movement, was a massive spread among all layers of society and across India. The initial spark came from the South, where two groups of devotees and poets produced devotional literature in Tamil which had an enormous impact: the 12 Ālvārs, devotees of Viṣhṇu, one of whom, Āṇḍāl, was a woman; and the 63 Nāyanārs or Nāyanmārs, devotees of Śiva, including three women.

More bhakti saints followed in several other parts of India. They emerged from diverse social backgrounds, and their poetry, composed mostly in regional languages, invoked a direct personal relationship with the divine that was open to everyone, cutting across gender and social divisions and reshaping Indian society and literature. Its impact is lingering to this day.

Now, students, let me tell you about some of the brilliant mathematicians and astronomers of this period. The period we deal with in this chapter saw brilliant advances in science and technology. Born in 598 CE in Bhillamāla, which was the first capital of the Gurjara-Pratīhāras, Brahmagupta was an imposing figure with remarkable achievements in mathematics and astronomy. In his major work, Brahmasphuṭasiddhānta, he introduced the rules of arithmetic operations with zero, negative numbers, and fractions, the same that you now learn at school. He also pioneered new techniques for solving certain equations, establishing him as one of the founders of modern algebra. His works were translated into Persian and later Latin, contributing to the growth of mathematics in the Arab world and, later, Europe.

Other brilliant mathematicians and astronomers of this period included Bhāskara I, who did pioneering work in trigonometry and wrote a lengthy commentary on the Āryabhaṭīya, and Virahāṅka, the first to establish the Virahāṅka-Fibonacci sequence, which you learned about in your Grade 7 Mathematics textbook. Mahāvīra, a Jain scholar, not to be confused with Mahāvīra the great Jain teacher who lived over a millennium earlier, lived at the court of the Rāṣṭrakūṭa king Amoghavarṣa Nṛpatuṅga and authored the first work of mathematics independent of astronomy.

Now, let us discuss foreign invasions. For centuries, Indian rulers kept a close watch on the strategic northwestern frontier, yet the subcontinent faced many foreign invasions throughout its long history. Let us now hear about the coming of the Hūṇas and the Arabs.

The Hūṇas were a nomadic people originating from Central Asia in the 4th century. With their horse-riding and archery skills and lightning-fast attacks, they were fierce conquerors and overcame much of Europe until, a century later, their empire disintegrated. The Hūṇas mentioned in Indian literature are thought to have been a branch of the Huns. They played a part in weakening the mighty Gupta Empire, as we saw in your earlier chapter, but could not affect India much at that time.

In the early 6th century, two Hūṇa leaders in succession pushed deep into the Ganga plains despite stiff resistance from several kings, until they were defeated by kings of the Aulikara dynasty whose capital was Daśapura, which is modern-day Mandsaur in Madhya Pradesh. These successive defeats effectively ended Hūṇa power in India.

By the 7th century, the Hūṇas had assimilated into the very fabric of Indian society. Many served as soldiers, others took up roles in local administrations. One inscription records a Hūṇa serving on a temple's administration council. They adopted Sanskrit and Prakrit for their inscriptions and used Gupta-style royal titles, coin designs, and religious symbols. Some of their coins displayed the goddess Lakṣhmī and attributes of Viṣhṇu or Śhiva. This shows how the Hūṇas, despite being foreign invaders, eventually became part of Indian society and adopted Indian ways.

Now, let us discuss the Arabs arriving on India's shores. Within a few years of the death of Islam's founder, Muhammad, in 632 CE, the new religion had spread far into Asia and Africa. In 637, India's western coast witnessed naval raids by Muslim Arabs on Thānā, present-day Thane, Bhārukachchha, present-day Bharuch, and Debal, a port city in the delta of the Indus, though without securing lasting territorial control. The first attempts to conquer Afghan kingdoms were also unsuccessful, as they met with fierce resistance.

However, things changed when the governor of Iraq sent an army under the command of his nephew and son-in-law, Muhammad bin Qasim. These forces swept into Sindh. Debal fell first, where, according to the 9th-century historian Al-Balādhuri, bin Qasim "kept up the slaughter of the inhabitants for three days" and had a "great temple housing idols destroyed." From there, bin Qasim moved eastward towards Aror, also Alor, present-day Rohri in Sindh, the capital of King Dāhar. According to the Chachnāma, a 13th-century Persian rendering of an older Arabic account, bin Qasim declared to Dāhar, "I consider it my bounden duty to carry on this religious war, in obedience to the orders of God who says in the Kor'an: 'Wage war against the infidels'." In a fierce battle, Dāhar, riding atop an elephant, was killed by an arrow, following which his army was routed.

The Chachnāma records that when King Dāhar was killed, his widowed queen put up a brave resistance, and when the situation became hopeless, she immolated herself along with other ladies. Another queen ordered her treasure to be distributed among the brave soldiers and inspired them to stand against the invaders. This suggests that the indigenous people responded to invasions with great courage and resistance. The queen chose to give away her treasure to inspire the soldiers to fight bravely, showing that she valued honor and resistance over wealth. This reveals that women played important roles in warfare, not just as passive observers but as active participants who could inspire and lead.

Within two years of Qasim's death, Indian chiefs rebelled and regained most of the conquered territory. The Arabs did not give up easily and soon pushed into Rājputāna and the central region of Mālwā, but their gains were short-lived. An inscription at Gwalior records how the Gurjara-Pratihāra king Nāgabhata I "crushed the large army of the powerful Mlechchha king." Mlechchha was a term that originally referred to those who did not speak clearly or did not follow Vedic culture, and it came to refer to foreigners.

The Arabs continued to be frustrated in their advances by the stubborn resistance of Indian rulers, who sometimes forged alliances to defeat them. Kashmir's King Lalitāditya Muktāpīda defeated an Arab chief three times, according to the Rājataranginī. The geographer al-Istakhri observed that after three centuries of unremitting effort, the Arab dominion in India was limited to just two petty states in Sindh and Punjab. Even there, they survived only by giving up iconoclasm and using native Hindus and Buddhists for political purposes.

Overall, the Arab conquest of Sindh had a limited political and religious impact compared to their conquests in other regions where Islam often replaced local institutions and led to mass conversions. In Sindh, whether for strategic reasons or by compulsion, the Arabs changed their policy: Hindus and Buddhists were allowed to rebuild temples, continue their worship, and temple priests were allowed to keep their share of revenue.

It is worth noting that long before the rise of Islam, India and Arabia were well connected through trade, with ships sailing back and forth with the monsoon winds. Indeed, the word "monsoon" is borrowed from the Arabic mawsim for "season." Ships carried not only spices and textiles but also ideas, languages, and stories across the Arabian Sea.

The most significant cultural interactions are perhaps in the field of science, since, especially in the 9th century, Sanskrit texts of mathematics, astronomy, and medicine were translated into Arabic, notably in Baghdad. Among many other things, the Arabs adopted India's decimal numeral system with the zero, along with the Indian numerals. Their mathematicians acknowledged the Indian origin of this revolutionary numeral system, but once transmitted to Europe by the Arabs, these numerals became known as "Arabic numerals." Nowadays, several dictionaries add the term "Hindu-Arabic numerals." You will come across this important example of cultural transmission in your mathematics textbooks.

Now, students, let us take stock of what we have learned. As we stated at the start, this chapter offers only a brief survey of the main figures and developments in this turbulent period. Numerous dynasties rose and fell, battling one another, but sometimes also in alliance with one another. A few of the more powerful kingdoms rose to the status of empires, but rarely managed to cover a large part of India or to last more than a couple of centuries.

At the same time, this was a period of transformation and regional consolidation. Far from being a historical void, it witnessed the dynamic integration of new social and political groups, the flourishing of literature in Sanskrit and regional languages, and major advances in temple architecture and sculpture. New philosophical schools of thought and new religious practices spread, redefining and enriching the subcontinent's cultural and spiritual landscape, though on the same ancient foundations. Lastly, India showed resilience in the face of foreign invasions and a capacity for political renewal.

Before we move on, let us summarize the key points. First, the decline of the Gupta empire led to the rise of powerful regional kingdoms. No single power could maintain lasting supremacy, as rival states had comparable military strength, administrative systems, and strategic approaches. Second, foreign invaders who came to India often assimilated and owned her cultural traditions. However, with the advent of Islam, the situation changed. While Arab armies achieved military successes elsewhere, they struggled for a long time before making their first significant breach into the subcontinent. Third, regardless of their own inclination, rulers generally patronised Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, promoting a vibrant cultural pluralism. The period saw the rise of the Bhakti tradition, which soon spread across India. Fourth, this period saw remarkable achievements in language, literature, art, sciences, and technologies. Fifth, the multiplication of jātis made the society more complex, but the varṇa-jāti system remained flexible. Sixth, trade during this period connected local economies with distant markets, both in India and abroad, spurring urban growth, fostering cultural exchange, and integrating India into broader trade networks.

Now, students, let us work through the questions and activities at the end of the chapter.

The first question asks: "If you lived in Kannauj during the struggle between the Pālas, the Pratihāras and the Rāṣṭrakūṭas, how would it change your daily life and your estimate of the rulers? Write a letter on this to your friend living in Kanchipuram."

Let me help you think about this. If you lived in Kannauj during the Tripartite Struggle, your daily life would likely be affected by frequent wars and conflicts. You might see armies marching through the city, and you might have to pay higher taxes to support the ruler's military campaigns. Your estimate of the rulers would probably be shaped by which dynasty was in power at the time and how they treated their subjects. If the ruler was just and fair, you might admire them. If they were harsh, you might fear them. You would write to your friend in Kanchipuram about the political instability and how it affects ordinary people. You might also compare the situation in Kannauj with the more stable rule of the Pallavas in the south.

The second question asks: "Emperors and kings during this period controlled only core regions and governed other regions through subordinate vassals. What would be the advantages and the challenges of such a system?"

The advantages are that it allowed rulers to control large territories without having to manage every detail directly. The vassals, or sāmantas, knew the local conditions and could govern more effectively. It also allowed for some local autonomy, which could help maintain stability. The challenges are that the vassals might become too powerful and rebel against their overlords. Their loyalty could be fragile, especially when they felt that the empire's central authority was weakening. We saw this happen with the Rāṣṭrakūṭas, who were once sāmantas under the Chālukyas but eventually overthrew them.

The third question asks: "In what ways were the invasions of the Hūnas and the Arabs different in their aims, methods, and impact on the Indian subcontinent? Prepare a write-up, discuss and present it in class."

The Hūnas were primarily interested in conquest and plunder, and they eventually assimilated into Indian society. Their impact was significant in weakening the Gupta Empire, but they did not bring a new religion or a completely new political system. The Arabs, on the other hand, were motivated by religious reasons and wanted to spread Islam. They conquered Sindh and established Muslim rule there, but their attempts to expand further into India were largely unsuccessful due to the resistance of Indian rulers. Their impact was more limited in terms of territory but significant in terms of cultural and religious interactions, especially in the field of science and mathematics.

The fourth question asks: "Imagine you are a common citizen watching the Prayāga assembly. How would you react to Harṣha giving away most of his wealth?"

As a common citizen, you might be amazed and grateful to see such generosity. You might also wonder if it is wise for a ruler to give away so much wealth, as it could weaken the state's finances. You might feel hopeful that you or your family might receive some of the distributed wealth, especially if you were poor. You might also admire Harṣha's devotion and his respect for all religions.

The fifth question asks: "Forming groups, let each group choose one Ālvār and one Nāyanār and prepare a biography poster or booklet. Include their life stories and a sample poem or two in translation."

This is an activity that you will do in groups. Choose one of the 12 Ālvārs, such as Tirumangai Ālvār or Āṇḍāl, and one of the 63 Nāyanārs, such as Appar or Sambandar. Research their life stories, their contributions to the Bhakti movement, and find sample poems or devotional songs they composed. Present your findings as a poster or booklet.

The sixth question asks: "You will notice that our maps show only ancient names for the kingdoms' capitals and main cities. Using a pencil, mark the modern names next to their original names. Refer the current map of India and try to locate those cities on it."

This is a map activity. Look at the maps in your textbook and find the ancient names of cities. Then, using a current map of India, mark the modern names. For example, Kānyakubja is modern Kannauj, Kānchi is modern Kanchipuram, and so on.

The seventh question is a matching exercise: "Match the ruler or the dynasty with the city."

Let me help you with this. The Rāṣṭrakūṭas had their capital at Mānyakheṭa, which is modern Malkheda in Karnataka. The Gurjara-Pratihāras had their capital at Ujjayinī, which is modern Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh. The Cholas had their capital at Tanjāvūr, which is modern Thanjavur in Tamil Nadu. Harṣhavardhana ruled from Kānyakubja, which is modern Kannauj in Uttar Pradesh. The Pallavas had their capital at Kānchi, which is modern Kanchipuram in Tamil Nadu.

So the answers are: (a) Rāṣṭrakūṭas — (iii) Mānyakheṭa; (b) Gurjara-Pratihāras — (iv) Ujjayinī; (c) Cholas — (ii) Tanjāvūr; (d) Harṣhavardhana — (v) Kānyakubja; (e) Pallavas — (i) Kānchi.

Now, students, let me give you a complete summary of everything we have learned in this chapter.

We began by understanding that the period from the 6th to the 10th centuries was a time of significant transformation in India. After the decline of the Gupta Empire, no single power could dominate the entire subcontinent. Instead, we saw the rise of many powerful regional kingdoms.

We studied Harṣhavardhana, who ruled from Kannauj from 606 CE. He was a great patron of learning and literature, and he welcomed the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang to his court. Every five years, he held a grand assembly at Prayāga where he distributed wealth to people of all religions.

After Harṣha's death, north India saw the famous Tripartite Struggle for Kannauj between three powerful dynasties: the Pālas in the east, the Gurjara-Pratihāras in the west, and the Rāṣṭrakūṭas in the Deccan. None of them could achieve lasting victory.

We learned about the Pālas, who ruled Bengal and eastern India. They were great patrons of Buddhism and founded the universities of Vikramaśīlā and Somapura. We learned about the Gurjara-Pratihāras, who defended northwest India against Arab invasions and had famous rulers like Bhoja. We learned about the Rāṣṭrakūṭas, who built the magnificent Kailāśhanātha temple at Ellora and had tolerant rulers like Amoghavarṣa I.

We visited Kashmir, where the historian Kalhaṇa wrote the Rājataraṅgiṇī, and learned about Queen Diddā. We studied the Chālukyas of the Deccan and the Pallavas of the south, who built beautiful temples at Badami, Aihole, and Māmallapuram. We learned about the rise of the Cholas in the south, who built a powerful empire with their capital at Thanjavur.

We discussed the political and administrative systems, including the role of sāmantas or vassals, and the rise of local assemblies in the south. We learned about trade and urbanisation, and how India was connected to the world through maritime trade. We explored the social life of the period, including the jāti system and the position of women. We discovered the Bhakti movement, which started in the south with the Ālvārs and Nāyanārs and spread across India.

We learned about the brilliant mathematicians and astronomers of this period, including Brahmagupta, who invented the rules of arithmetic with zero. We studied the foreign invasions by the Hūṇas and the Arabs, and how India resisted and eventually absorbed these invaders while also benefiting from cultural exchanges, especially in the field of science and mathematics.

Finally, we understood that this was not a period of decline but of transformation and regional consolidation. India showed resilience in the face of foreign invasions and a capacity for political renewal. The period saw remarkable achievements in all fields of human endeavor, setting the stage for the centuries to come.

Students, I hope you have enjoyed this journey through one of the most fascinating periods of Indian history. Remember, history is not just about dates and names — it is about understanding how we got to where we are today. Thank you for your attention, and I will see you in the next chapter.