Turning Tides: 11th And 12th Centuries

Hello, my dear students! Welcome to today's history lesson. I am so happy to see all of you here, ready to learn about one of the most fascinating periods in our country's long and glorious history. Today, we will be studying Chapter 4 from your Social Science textbook — "Turning Tides: 11th and 12th Centuries."

Now, students, before we begin, let me tell you why this chapter is so important. The 11th and 12th centuries mark a major turning point in Indian history. This is the time when new powers emerged, both from within India and from outside. It is a period of great change, but also of remarkable continuity. As you read through this chapter, you will see how our ancestors faced challenges, how they fought, how they built, how they created beautiful things, and how they kept our culture alive even during difficult times. So, let us begin our journey into the past.

The chapter begins with a beautiful quote from Swami Vivekananda. He says, "It is the same India which has withstood the shocks of centuries, of hundreds of foreign invasions, of hundreds of upheavals of manners and customs. It is the same land which stands firmer than any rock in the world, with its undying vigour, indestructible life." Students, keep these words in mind as we study this chapter. They capture the spirit of resilience that has defined our nation through ages.

Now, let us look at the big questions that this chapter will help us answer. First, why are the 11th and 12th centuries seen as a period of transition in Indian history? Second, which new powers emerged during this period, and what were the essential features of their economic, military, and administrative systems? Third, what high accomplishments in art, architecture, literature, science, and other fields do we come across during this period? These are the questions we will explore together.

To understand this period better, let us first look at the timeline provided in your textbook. You can see that between 985 and 1014, Rajaraja Chola I ruled, followed by Rajendra Chola I from 1014 to 1044. Around the year 1000, Mahmud of Ghazni began his campaigns against the Hindu Shahis. Between 1010 and 1055, the Paramara king Bhoja ruled. In 1025, Rajendra Chola sent his naval expedition to Southeast Asia. In 1026, Mahmud destroyed and plundered the Somnath temple. In the 12th century, we see the rise of the Kakatiyas. In 1150, Bhaskaracharya composed Lilavati. In the first half of the 12th century, the Angkor Wat temple was constructed in Cambodia. Then, in 1192, the Second Battle of Tarain took place, where Muhammad Ghuri defeated Prithviraja III. In 1205-06, Bakhtiyar Khalji was defeated in Kamarupa, and in 1206, both Muhammad Ghuri and Bakhtiyar Khalji died. This timeline gives us a clear picture of the major events of this period.

Now, students, I want you to notice something important. The chapter has a word of caution at the beginning. It tells us that history has often recorded war, conquest, and destruction more than peace, good governance, or creativity. This is true not just in India, but all over the world. The chapter asks us to face these darker periods and analyze them so that we can understand what made such developments possible and, hopefully, help avoid their recurrence in the future. This is a very mature approach to studying history, and I want you to keep this in mind as we go through this chapter.

Now, let us begin with the first major topic: The Ghaznavid Invasions.

Students, to understand the Ghaznavid invasions, we need to first understand who the Hindu Shahis were. In the 9th and 10th centuries, several kingdoms confronted each other in present-day Afghanistan and northern Pakistan. Across those two regions and all the way to Punjab, there ruled a powerful dynasty known as the Hindu Shahis. With the help of several other Indian rulers, they resisted several attempted invasions. This resistance made a difference because they controlled the Khyber Pass, one of the main mountain passes through the Hindu Kush range. Now, students, let me explain what the Khyber Pass is. The Khyber Pass is a narrow mountain pass that connects Afghanistan and Pakistan. It has been used for thousands of years as a trade route and as an invasion route. For at least 2,500 years, it was a major trade route connecting the Subcontinent to Central Asia and beyond. Buddhist scholars and monks also traveled through this pass to go to different parts of Asia.

Now, let us think about the advantages and dangers of the Khyber Pass. If you look at the sketch of the Khyber Pass in your textbook, you will see that it is a narrow pass with mountains on either side. What advantages would it offer to an army trying to reach the Indus plains? Well, students, it is a natural gateway. An army that controls the pass can stop others from entering or exiting. It is also a chokepoint — if you defend it well, it is very difficult for an enemy to get through. But what are the dangers? Well, the pass is narrow, so if an enemy is attacking, it is easy to get trapped. Also, the terrain is rugged, making it difficult for large armies to move quickly. For traders, the pass offered the advantage of a ready-made route through the mountains, but the dangers included the risk of robbery, attacks by mountain tribes, and harsh weather conditions.

Now, students, let us see what happened to the Hindu Shahis. Ultimately, a Turkic power — the Ghaznavids — after defeating a rival Muslim kingdom, overran the Shahis, who were ruled at that time by Jayapala. As their name indicates, the Ghaznavids' capital was Ghazna, today's Ghazni in Afghanistan. In the first decade of the 11th century, their ruler Mahmud, often referred to as Mahmud of Ghazni, accomplished this final conquest. He first defeated Jayapala, and in 1008, overcame Jayapala's son Anandapala after a long battle, despite the support Anandapala received from several rulers from north India. The outcome of that battle, waged in northern Punjab, meant that Mahmud now had easy access to the Indus plains and beyond.

Now, students, there is an interesting observation made by al-Biruni, who accompanied Mahmud in some of his campaigns. He wrote in his memoirs on India, "The Hindu Shahiya dynasty is now extinct, and of the whole house there is no longer the slightest remnant in existence. We must say that, in all their grandeur, they never slackened in the ardent desire of doing that which is good and right, that they were men of noble sentiment and noble bearing." What conclusions can we draw from this remark? Well, students, al-Biruni was a scholar who traveled with Mahmud, but he was also a fair observer. His remark shows that even though he was part of the invading force, he had respect for the Hindu Shahi rulers. He acknowledges that they were noble people who fought bravely for what they believed was right. This tells us that history is not always black and white — even our enemies can have admirable qualities.

Now, let me tell you about the title 'Sultan'. Students, you might have heard this word before. Mahmud assumed the title of 'sultan', a word of Arabic origin which means 'authority' or 'power'. In the Muslim world, it came to refer to a sovereign ruler or king. In Grade 8, you will learn about sultans who established their kingdoms or sultanates in India, the dominant one being the Delhi Sultanate.

Now, let us talk about Mahmud's campaigns in India. In all, Mahmud conducted 17 campaigns in India. After each one, he would return to Ghazni with huge amounts of booty. Although he met with strong resistance — from the Chandellas of central India, among others — and was close to defeat on a few occasions, his large army's rapid marches and daring cavalry attacks, with archers on horseback, were ultimately decisive.

Let me tell you about some of Mahmud's major campaigns. When Mahmud reached Mathura in 1018, he found it to be a city of enormous wealth, with a magnificent temple overlooking the city. Mahmud's court historian al-Utbi, who chronicled his campaigns, wrote that even "the pens of all writers and the pencils of all painters" would be unable to describe the temple's "beauty and decoration." Mahmud destroyed it and plundered its treasure. Then he proceeded to Kannauj, where he took one of the last Pratihara rulers by surprise, and looted and destroyed many temples. A few years later, another campaign took him to Gujarat and to Somnath, which was then a bustling seaport. Despite strong resistance from the locals and severe losses to his army, after a few days of fighting Mahmud gained the upper hand, destroyed the Somanatha Shiva temple, and looted its enormous treasures.

Now, students, there is an interesting question in your textbook about the Somanatha temple. In later centuries, the Somanatha temple was rebuilt and destroyed again several times. The existing temple was built in 1950 and inaugurated the next year by the then President of India, Rajendra Prasad. Why do you think it was decided to fund the construction entirely from public donations? Think about this for a moment. The Somanatha temple is a symbol of India's cultural heritage and religious faith. By funding its construction entirely from public donations, it was shown that the temple belongs to the people of India, not to any government or authority. It was a way of asserting our cultural identity and our determination to preserve our heritage despite all odds.

Now, let me tell you about Mahmud's death and what happened after him. Mahmud died in 1030 in Ghazni, at the age of 58. About this time, his nephew, Salar Masud, launched an attack on the Gangetic region. According to oral history and to a 17th-century Muslim chronicle, when he reached Bahraich in modern-day Uttar Pradesh, the local ruler Suheldev successfully resisted the attack and Salar Masud fell in the battle.

Now, students, I want you to understand the true nature of Mahmud's campaigns. His campaigns involved not only destruction and plunder, but also the slaughter of tens of thousands of Indian civilians and the capture of numerous prisoners, including children, who were taken to be sold on slave markets of Central Asia. His biographers depict him as a powerful but cruel and ruthless general, keen not only to slaughter or enslave 'infidels' — that is, Hindus or Buddhists or Jains — but also to kill believers from rival sects of Islam. This is a dark chapter in history, but we must face it honestly to understand the full picture of what happened during this period.

Now, let us move on to a very important figure from this period: Al-Biruni.

Students, Abu Rayhan al-Biruni was a Persian scholar from Khwarizm in present-day Uzbekistan. He was a mathematician, astronomer, geographer, historian, and linguist all rolled into one. He traveled widely and wrote prolifically, both in Arabic and Persian, on nearly every branch of knowledge known in his time.

Around 1017, al-Biruni accompanied Mahmud of Ghazni on his campaign into India. He learned Sanskrit, read Indian texts, and conversed with Indian scholars. The result was an encyclopedic survey of Indian religion, philosophy, literature, geography, and sciences, in which he discussed Indian intellectual achievements as best he could, often comparing them with those of Greek and Islamic traditions. In mathematics and astronomy, al-Biruni compiled what he could gather from the works of Aryabhata, Varahamihira, and Brahmagupta, among others. In another work, he translated into Arabic Patanjali's Yogasutras, a classic text on advanced concepts and techniques of yoga.

At the same time, al-Biruni noted the impact of Mahmud's military campaigns on India's scientific traditions. He wrote, "Mahmud utterly ruined the prosperity of the country, and performed there wonderful feats, by which the Hindus became like atoms of dust scattered in all directions. ... This is the reason, too, why Indian sciences have retired far away from those parts of the country conquered by us, and have fled to places which our hand cannot yet reach; to Kashmir, Varanasi, and other places." This is a very important observation, students. It shows us that the invasions not only caused immediate destruction but also led to a decline in the production and transmission of scientific knowledge in the affected areas. Scholars fled to safer regions, taking their knowledge with them.

Now, let us talk about Bhaskaracharya, one of India's greatest mathematicians and astronomers.

Students, while the production and transmission of scientific knowledge did decline in north India a little later, they continued to flourish in other regions. Born in 1114, probably in present-day Maharashtra, Bhaskara II, better known as Bhaskaracharya, was one of India's greatest mathematicians and astronomers. His family counted several scholars and astronomers. His most famous works, all in Sanskrit, are Lilavati, which uses lively riddles and problems to teach basic mathematics; Bijaganita, on more advanced algebra; and Siddhantashironiani, which deals with advanced astronomical calculations. Many later scholars wrote commentaries on those works, and several of them were translated into Persian during the Mughal period. As a result, his influence in India and beyond was long-lasting. It would take Europe a few centuries to rediscover some of Bhaskaracharya's pioneering techniques.

In addition to his scientific knowledge, Bhaskaracharya had a gift for poetry and used this talent to make his writings enjoyable to scholars and students alike. His works were full of examples, with clear explanations, demonstrations, and proofs, making them favourite texts with students for centuries.

Now, students, let me give you an example from Lilavati. See if you can find the solution! The problem goes like this: "Of a herd of elephants, half and one-third of the half went into a cave, one-sixth and one-seventh of one-sixth were drinking water from a river. One-eighth and one-ninth of one-eighth were sporting in a pond full of lotuses. And the king of the elephants was leading three female elephants. Tell me, how many elephants were there in the herd?"

Let me solve this for you step by step. This is a classic problem from Lilavati. Let the total number of elephants be x.

First group: half went into a cave = x/2 Plus one-third of the half = 1/3 × (x/2) = x/6 So first group = x/2 + x/6 = (3x + x)/6 = 4x/6 = 2x/3

Second group: one-sixth were drinking water = x/6 Plus one-seventh of one-sixth = 1/7 × (x/6) = x/42 So second group = x/6 + x/42 = (7x + x)/42 = 8x/42 = 4x/21

Third group: one-eighth were sporting = x/8 Plus one-ninth of one-eighth = 1/9 × (x/8) = x/72 So third group = x/8 + x/72 = (9x + x)/72 = 10x/72 = 5x/36

Now, the king of the elephants was leading three female elephants, which means 4 elephants (the king + 3 females).

So we have: 2x/3 + 4x/21 + 5x/36 + 4 = x

Let us find a common denominator. The LCM of 3, 21, and 36 is 252. So: (2x/3) = (2x × 84)/252 = 168x/252 (4x/21) = (4x × 12)/252 = 48x/252 (5x/36) = (5x × 7)/252 = 35x/252

So total = (168x + 48x + 35x)/252 + 4 = (251x)/252 + 4

So equation: (251x)/252 + 4 = x Multiply both sides by 252: 251x + 1008 = 252x So 1008 = 252x - 251x = x Therefore, x = 1008

So there were 1008 elephants in the herd. Isn't that wonderful, students? Bhaskaracharya made mathematics so interesting with such word problems!

Now, let us go back to the chapter and understand why Mahmud conducted his campaigns. As Mahmud did not attempt to establish a permanent base in India beyond Punjab, historians have debated his motives for conducting such destructive campaigns. They have often suggested that plunder was the chief reason for his destruction of temples in India. It is true that the larger temples often held immense wealth, accumulated from the devotees' offerings over centuries, and would therefore be prime targets for plunder.

But it is also true that Mahmud was keen to spread his version of Islam to non-Muslim parts of the world, as we find from contemporary evidence. Al-Utbi noted, "Wherever he went, Mahmud plundered and sacked the country until it was annihilated. He dug up and burnt down all its buildings, killed those infidels and carried away their children and cattle as booty. He mastered several other territories, and destroying their temples, their sacred buildings, built mosques instead, making the light of Islam visible."

Let us also refer again to al-Biruni, who, after explaining the origin of the shivalinga worshipped at the Somnath temple, recorded, "The image was destroyed by the Prince Mahmud. He ordered the upper part to be broken and the remainder to be transported to his residence, Ghazni. [A part of the image] lies before the door of the mosque of Ghazni, on which people rub their feet to clean them from dirt and wet." This shows the extent of the destruction and the disrespect shown to Hindu religious symbols.

Now, students, there is also a coin issued from Lahore by Mahmud, with one side in Arabic and the other in Sanskrit, praising Islam and Mahmud as 'nripati' or king. This shows that Mahmud wanted to communicate with both his Muslim subjects and his Hindu subjects through his coins.

Now, let us move on to Eastern India. While north India bore the brunt of the Ghaznavid raids, during the 11th century the scene in eastern India was very different. After the decline of the Palas, the Sena dynasty emerged as the dominant power over much of Bengal, with their capital at Nadiya, now the Nadia district, which shares a border with Bangladesh. Their relations with neighbouring Kamarupa and Kalinga seem to have alternated between friendly and conflictual. While their predecessors, the Palas, patronized Buddhist institutions, the Senas promoted Hindu thought and literature, hosting poets such as Jayadeva, author of the famous Gitagovindam, which tells the story of Krishna and Radha.

Let us follow the coast southward, into Kalinga where we encounter the Eastern Gangas, who had matrimonial alliances with the Cholas, yet also clashed with them a few times, and with other neighbours as well. Nevertheless, by the end of the 12th century the Eastern Gangas emerged as one of the most stable powers of eastern India, with their kingdom extending 'from the Ganga to the Godavari,' as some of their inscriptions claim. This dynasty initiated the construction of the Jagannatha temple at Puri, and, in the mid-13th century, of the grand Sun temple at Konark.

Now, let us continue our journey southward. From the previous chapter, you might remember the Western Chalukyas with their capital at Kalyani and the Eastern Chalukyas. The former was a major power in the Deccan, its rule extending at some point to the Narmada River in the north. As the Eastern Chalukyas were gradually absorbed into the Chola sphere of influence through marriage alliances, their capital Vengi and the fertile region around it became the object of fierce wars between the Cholas and the Western Chalukyas. As a result, the Western Chalukyas faded away, while the Kakatiyas and the Hoysalas grew stronger, eventually replacing them.

Now, let us talk about the Kakatiyas. In the 12th century, the Kakatiyas cemented their authority over much of present-day Telangana and Andhra Pradesh, with their capital at Orugallu, today's Warangal, where they built a fort with impressive stone toranas or gateways. While some of their kings composed works in Sanskrit, they also patronized Telugu literature. The Thousand Pillar temple at Hanamkonda is a fine example of their temple architecture.

The Kakatiya rulers promoted a strong local administration based on village self-governance. They developed an efficient revenue system and an irrigation infrastructure that supported agricultural prosperity.

Now, let us talk about the Hoysalas. The Hoysalas originated in southern Karnataka. There is an interesting legend behind the name. When their founder Sala went to a Jain temple for worship, he found an ascetic meditating. As a tiger appeared on the scene, the ascetic said "Poy, Sala" — which, in old Kannada language, means "strike, Sala." Sala promptly obeyed the ascetic and saved his life. In return, the ascetic blessed him with kingship. According to this legend mentioned in inscriptions, the name 'Hoysala' is said to originate from the ascetic's command!

In our period, Velapura, today's Belur, and Dvarasamudra, today's Halebidu, became the Hoysalas' capitals. Under King Vishnuvardhana, they broke away from Chalukya overlordship, challenged the Cholas, and gradually extended their sway over most of present-day Karnataka. Their rule saw cultural and literary development in Kannada language, but their most visible legacy is their unique style of temple architecture, with intricately carved stone pillars, sculptures, and panels. The temples at Belur and Halebidu are particularly famous, and are among three Hoysala temples recognized by UNESCO as world heritage monuments.

Now, students, let us turn to one of the most powerful and influential dynasties of this period: the Cholas.

The Cholas were a powerful and influential dynasty that rose to prominence in present-day Tamil Nadu, with Thanjavur, Gangakondacholapuram, and Kanchi as their capital cities.

From 985, Rajaraja Chola ruled for some three decades and conquered parts of present-day Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. His inscriptions record his conquest of 'islands of the sea,' which most historians identify with the Maldives. He also conquered the northern part of Sri Lanka, including the kingdom of Anuradhapura. He built the Brihadesvara temple at Thanjavur, a masterpiece of architecture and engineering. And although the Cholas were predominantly Shaivites, Rajaraja facilitated the construction of a Buddhist vihara at Nagappattinam, then an important port of the Cholas, by the ruler of the Srivijaya Empire across the Bay of Bengal.

Rajaraja's son Rajendra Chola I, who also ruled for nearly 30 years, expanded the empire further, conquering parts of present-day Odisha and Bengal. He commemorated those victories with the title 'Gangakondachola,' that is, "the Chola who seized (or brought) Ganga" — a reference both to his campaigns in the North and to the sacredness attached to Ganga. Rajendra also expanded his father's conquest of northern Sri Lanka, which became an integral part of the Chola Empire for half a century or so, until the Sri Lankan king Vijayabahu I managed to drive the Cholas out after several battles.

Now, students, let me tell you about one of Rajendra's most famous achievements: his naval expedition against the Srivijaya Empire. Rajendra is celebrated for his successful naval expedition against the king of the Srivijaya Empire. The conflict had its roots in the maritime trade with China. Under the Cholas, trade relations with China thrived, as archaeological evidence and inscriptions confirm. Rajendra even sent a diplomatic mission to China. But one of the sea routes passed through the Strait of Malacca, a narrow strip of sea between Malaysia and the Indonesian island of Sumatra, which the Srivijaya king controlled, and this created competition with the Cholas.

Rajendra sent his navy, which defeated the Srivijaya forces and captured their capital. However, he did not try to occupy the defeated empire. It was a punitive expedition, conducted with the support of many Indian merchant guilds, and it seems to have achieved its objectives.

Now, students, there is an important point here. We should not conclude from Rajendra's expedition against the Srivijaya Empire that the latter's relations with India were conflictual. On the contrary, there were deep cultural and generally peaceful relations between these two regions of Asia. For instance, a Srivijaya ruler made donations to Nalanda and asked the Pala king for land to create one more monastery there. The request was granted, as a copper-plate found at Nalanda recorded. Similarly, with Sri Lanka: strong cultural links apart, Vijayabahu I married a princess from Kalinga.

Now, back home, the Cholas engaged in large public works, such as roads to facilitate communications, tanks, wells, and canals for irrigation, and artificial lakes. But their frequent and extensive conflicts with several neighbouring kingdoms, in particular the Western Chalukyas, the Pandyas, and the rulers of Sri Lanka, drained their treasury and contributed to the decline of the empire. By the 13th century, the Chola empire had shrunk considerably and was finally absorbed by the Pandyas.

Now, let us go back to the north, as a second phase of foreign invasions was going to have a more lasting impact on India.

Let us talk about the Paramaras. The Paramaras were originally vassals of the Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas. In the second half of the 10th century, they emerged as an independent power in Malwa, a region in present-day Madhya Pradesh, with Dhara, present-day Dhar, as their capital. Their most famous king was Bhoja, who ruled from 1010 for almost half a century and led numerous campaigns, extending his kingdom from the Konkan region on the west coast to parts of Rajasthan. He was among the Indian rulers who sent their forces to assist the Hindu Shahi rulers against Mahmud of Ghazni.

After Bhoja's death in 1055, the Paramaras gradually declined, partly because of conflicts with neighbouring powers.

Now, students, I want to tell you about Bhoja, who was not just a king but also a scholar. Bhoja Paramara should not be confused with King Bhoja of the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty, whom you might have met in the previous chapter and who lived in the 9th century. Bhoja Paramara was known for his efficient governance and public works. He is credited with founding the town of Bhojpur and constructing a vast lake between Bhojpur and the city of Bhopal by harnessing the waters of several rivers. It served both irrigation and water management purposes. Only a small portion of that lake, called 'Bhojtal,' remains near present-day Bhopal, while remains of earthen or stone embankments can still be seen further away. A local proverb remembers the lake's original size by declaring, "If there is a lake, it is Bhopal's lake; all others are just ponds!"

Bhoja also built the impressive Bhojeshwar Temple, which remains an architectural marvel even though it was never completed.

Bhoja was a generous patron who supported scholars and promoted Sanskrit literature. Under his patronage, arts and sciences flourished, so that his capital became a renowned centre of learning that attracted scholars, poets, and artists from across India.

Bhoja himself was a noted scholar and a prolific author who wrote on a wide range of subjects. His works include Samarangana Sutradhara, a long treatise on architecture, town planning, temple construction, sculpture, and mechanical devices; treatises on governance and on Sanskrit poetics; a commentary on Patanjali's Yogasutras; and texts of medicine, among other texts attributed to him. His reputation as a wise and learned ruler became legendary, inspiring numerous stories and folk tales.

Now, students, let us talk about a very important turning point: the Ghurids in India.

As we saw, Mahmud of Ghazni was the first notable invader of India in the period we are looking at. After him, his Ghaznavid Empire was under attack from several sides in Afghanistan and beyond, and soon disintegrated. The chiefs of Ghor, present-day Ghor, a mountainous region in Afghanistan to the west of Ghazni, were earlier vassals of the Ghaznavids, but now seized the opportunity to take control of Ghazni and build up their power.

Their leader Muhammad, now the sultan of Ghor, and often called 'Muhammad Ghuri' or 'Muhammad of Ghor,' soon brought parts of Punjab and Sindh under his rule. His attempts to expand into Gujarat failed, as he was defeated in 1178 by the Chaulukya king Mularaja II at the foot of Mount Abu. In another version of this battle, it was Queen Naikidevi, Mularaja's mother, who led the victorious army on horseback, with her son in her lap. Merutunga, a Jain scholar from Gujarat, recorded the event in a semi-historical chronicle, but as he wrote over a century later, historians are divided as to whether the queen or her son should be credited for this victory. Anyhow, sources do record Muhammad's defeat there.

Now, students, let me tell you about the Chaulukya dynasty. The Chaulukya dynasty, also known as the Solanki dynasty, which ruled parts of Gujarat and Rajasthan from the 10th to the 13th centuries, is distinct from the Chalukya dynasty of the Deccan. Its capital was Anahilavada, which is today's Patan. They are also sometimes called 'Chalukyas of Gujarat.'

Now, let us talk about the Chahamanas, also known as Chauhans. They were a powerful Rajput dynasty that arose in nearby Rajasthan and neighbouring regions. Its kings, apart from battling other Indian dynasties, often repelled invaders such as Mahmud of Ghazni. In the 12th century, their conquests of Delhi, Haryana, parts of Punjab and Uttar Pradesh, apart from most of Rajasthan, established their empire, with its capital at Ajayameru, today's Ajmer.

Pritiviraja III, often known today as Prithviraj Chauhan, waged many battles with neighbouring kings, such as those of Gujarat and Malwa. In 1191, he also defeated Muhammad Ghuri at Tarain, modern-day Taraori in Haryana, but within a year, Muhammad returned with a larger army, and the two clashed again. In this Second Battle of Tarain, which witnessed fierce fighting, Muhammad defeated Pritiviraja and executed him.

Now, students, there is an important point here. Delhi was a flourishing city under the Chahamanas. Their inscriptions refer to it as 'Dhillika,' which was later shortened to 'Dhilli' and ultimately evolved into 'Delhi.'

Muhammad Ghuri went on to capture Delhi. Unlike Mahmud, who merely plundered and withdrew, he sought territorial conquest. Though he returned to Ghazni, he left behind trusted military commanders to consolidate his gains — most notably his general Qutb-ud-din Aibak, who later founded the Delhi Sultanate, as you will learn in Grade 8.

Aibak encountered much resistance in his campaigns in north India, but was able to expand the Ghurids' territory. His army commander Bakhtiyar Khalji conducted campaigns in eastern India from the end of the 12th century, conquering Bihar and Bengal. On his way to Bengal, he destroyed large Buddhist monasteries and universities such as Nalanda and Vikramshila, collecting huge booty and slaughtering large numbers of monks. There is a consensus among historians of Buddhism that this destruction of its large centres of learning precipitated the decline of Buddhism in India, although a few other factors may have also played a role.

Now, students, let me tell you about the destruction of Nalanda. Writing some 60 years after Bakhtiyar Khalji's campaign through Bihar, the historian Minhaj al-Siraj Juzjani recorded in his Tabakat-i-Nasiri how Bakhtiyar's forces captured a 'fortress' and "acquired great booty." He adds, "The greater number of the inhabitants of that place were Brahmans, and all those Brahmans had their heads shaven; and they were all slain. There were a great number of books there. ... It was found that the whole of that fortress and city was a college, and in their tongue, they call a college bihar."

Now, students, can you find clues to identify the 'fortress' near the Nalanda university? Remembering the meaning of vihara and noting that Nalanda was known in ancient inscriptions as 'Nalanda Mahavihara,' can you find two more clues in the above passage? The hint is: Who do you think these 'Brahmans' actually were? Well, students, the 'Brahmans' mentioned here were actually Buddhist monks. In ancient India, Buddhist monks were often called 'Brahmans' by Muslim historians because they wore sacred threads and followed strict disciplines similar to Brahmins. The word 'bihar' comes from 'vihara,' which means a Buddhist monastery or university. So the passage is clearly describing the destruction of Nalanda University.

Now, let me tell you about Nalanda's famous library. It was spread over three multi-storey buildings and contained lakhs of manuscripts. The Chinese pilgrims Yijing and Xuanzang spent some time there, studying manuscripts and selecting many to take back to China. After Bakhtiyar Khalji's attack, the library is said to have burned for months. Tibetan scholars, who were both teaching and studying there, fled back to Tibet with as many manuscripts as they could carry. When Dharmasvamin, a Tibetan monk, visited the site some three decades later, he found it half ruined. Yet, a 90-year-old teacher, Rahula Shribhadra, was still instructing a class of about 70 students — perhaps Nalanda's last class.

Now, as Bakhtiyar Khalji pushed further east into Bengal around 1203-04, he caught the Sena ruler unaware at Nadiya, ending the Senas' control over much of Bengal. For reasons that are not too clear, he then decided to attempt an expedition into Tibet. However, on his way through Kamarupa in 1205, he was confronted by the local ruler's forces, who inflicted severe losses on his army. The local population is said to have destroyed food and fodder, in effect starving the invading army. Bakhtiyar escaped with only a handful of his men and returned to Bengal much weakened.

Muhammad Ghuri was killed in 1206. The same year, Bakhtiyar Khalji was assassinated, apparently by his own men. Their territory in north India remained under the control of Muhammad's generals.

Now, students, let us discuss Governance, Trade, and Cultural Life during this period.

We have seen much warfare in this period, which means that every powerful king needed to keep a sizable army. This involved considerable resources to employ the soldiers, supply them with weapons, maintain horses and elephants, and in parts of north India, camels for transport of provisions. Powerful kingdoms therefore needed an efficient administration to collect tributes from vassals and taxes from the traders. The previous chapter described the main features of such administrations. There is no major change in this one, except with respect to Muhammad Ghuri's system, which was more centralized and granted temporary land assignments to officers in return for revenue collection and military service. This would be further developed during the period of the Delhi Sultanate, as you will see in Grade 8.

Despite the political disturbances we have seen, India's trade with China and Southeast Asia kept growing during this period. Among other evidences, coins and pottery from those overseas regions have been found at many locations on India's west coast, which had many seaports as well as shipyards manufacturing seafaring ships. While there was a brisk trade within India and beyond, supported by a few powerful guilds, the mainstay of the economy was ultimately agriculture, which remains true even today. The ancient texts often refer to agricultural produce, whether it is rice and barley in the Ganga plains and Bengal, saffron from Kashmir, spices from Kerala, ginger from Bengal, wheat from northwest India, and cotton from western India and the Deccan. Many rulers took care of irrigation works, which could, to some extent, mitigate the vagaries of seasonal rains.

If the economy thrived, so did the arts, the literary production, science, religious life, and other cultural aspects. In the previous chapter, you heard of Harsha's Sanskrit compositions, and in the present chapter, those of Bhoja the scholar-king. We should add here the Chalukya ruler Someshvara III, who in the 12th century authored Manasollasa, an encyclopedia covering topics ranging from astronomy and architecture to music, medicine, cooking, and games. In effect, it was a comprehensive guide to royal life and governance, with some emphasis on the duties of kings towards their subjects.

Many large temples were built in this period across India. Apart from those we saw earlier in this chapter, we should mention the Kandariya Mahadeva and the Lakshmana temples, architectural marvels among dozens of temples constructed at Khajuraho by the Chandellas during these two centuries.

Several noteworthy thinkers appeared in these two centuries. Among them, Ramanujacharya of south India was a philosopher-saint who challenged the dominant philosophical school of his time, Adi Shankara's advaita vedanta. Ramanuja developed the school of vishishtadvaita vedanta, which sees the world and individual souls as real, and emphasizes bhakti and surrender to the divine as the path to liberation.

Basaveshvara, also known as Basavanna, or Basava in short, was a royal minister at Kalyani, who left his position to become a social and religious reformer. He founded the Lingayat movement, which rejected caste distinctions and ritualism, and instead taught personal devotion and dedicated work. Looking at the inner value of a person rather than his or her social rank, Basavanna promoted the equal spiritual potential of all men and women. His short poems in Kannada, known as vachanas, strikingly convey his spiritual and ethical vision as well as his firm devotion to his Lord.

These two thinker-saints had a profound impact on the culture and society of south India in particular. Like other Bhakti saints elsewhere in the Subcontinent, they helped make spirituality more personal and accessible, breaking down some of the existing social barriers.

Now, students, there is an interesting activity in your textbook about Basavanna. In Kalyani, Basavanna established an anubhava mandapa, literally 'pavilion of experience,' where men and women from every social, economic, religious, or linguistic background, including saints and philosophers, could assemble to discuss all aspects of life, including moral values and religion. Why, in your opinion, did Basava want people from all backgrounds to come together and exchange ideas? If something like an anubhava mandapa existed today, what important topics do you think people ought to discuss there? What lessons can we draw from the anubhava mandapa spirit to create a just and civil society today? These are questions for you to think about and discuss with your friends and family.

Now, let us take stock of what we have learned. Like every transitional period, this one saw both change and continuity.

The most visible change was the military campaigns by Turkic invaders and the start of foreign rule in parts of north India, which involved considerable plunder and destruction of temples, cities, and centres of learning. This altered the power equations in a profound way. It also marked the spread of Islam as a new creed in India's religious landscape. At the same time, in the two centuries we focused on, large parts of northern India and all of south India remained outside the hold of the Turkic invaders. Neighbouring kingdoms often waged war against each other, though alliances were not uncommon. On a few occasions, native rulers even came together to form a coalition against a foreign invader.

Despite disruptions in the north, internal and external trade continued and the merchant guilds survived and adapted.

External trade was also a vehicle for the spread of Indian culture in Southeast Asia and China. Cultural traditions persisted in much of India, with new schools of thought and belief, and many literary and scientific compositions, not only in Sanskrit but also in regional languages.

The lesson of the period, if there is one, is therefore resilience in the face of conflict and the enduring power of knowledge, learning, and creativity.

Now, students, I want to tell you about one more important thing: the Angkor Wat temple in Cambodia. Constructed in the 12th century by the Khmer king Suryavarman II, it is the largest religious monument in the world. It was originally dedicated to Vishnu, with inscriptions in Old Khmer and in Sanskrit, and enormous bas-reliefs depicting scenes from the Ramayana and Mahabharata. The temple's five huge shikharas or towers symbolize Mount Meru, the mountain at the centre of the cosmos in Hindu mythology. Architecturally, Angkor Wat shares many features with south Indian temples, though on a grander scale. Later in the 12th century, following a change of political power, the temple was gradually converted into a Buddhist one. This temple is one of numerous examples of how India's religious and aesthetic traditions profoundly influenced Southeast Asian cultures.

Now, students, we have covered the entire chapter. Let me now answer all the questions at the end of the chapter.

Question 1: Why is the period under consideration in this chapter regarded as a major transition in Indian history? Give two examples each of change and continuity from this period.

Students, the period under consideration is regarded as a major transition in Indian history for several reasons. First, it saw the beginning of Turkic invasions that would eventually lead to the establishment of foreign rule in India. Second, there was a shift in power from the traditional kingdoms to new dynasties. Third, there were significant changes in the political, economic, and cultural landscape of India.

Examples of change: First, the Ghaznavid and Ghurid invasions brought new powers into India. Mahmud of Ghazni conducted 17 raids, destroying temples and plundering wealth. Second, Muhammad Ghuri established territorial control in north India, leading to the foundation of the Delhi Sultanate. Third, new dynasties like the Kakatiyas, Hoysalas, and Cholas rose to prominence in different parts of India.

Examples of continuity: First, despite the invasions, internal trade and external trade continued to flourish. Second, cultural traditions persisted, with the continuation of temple building, literary production, and scientific achievements. Third, the administrative systems continued with some modifications, and the revenue systems remained largely similar.

Question 2: Observe Fig. 3.27 in the previous chapter and draw a similar 'star of dynasties' gathering all or most of the dynasties that appear in this chapter.

Students, this is an activity for you to do. Look at the previous chapter's figure and create a similar diagram for this chapter. The dynasties that appear in this chapter include: Hindu Shahis, Ghaznavids, Chandellas, Paramaras, Senas, Eastern Gangas, Western Chalukyas, Eastern Chalukyas, Kakatiyas, Hoysalas, Cholas, Chaulukyas, Chahamanas, and Ghurids. Draw a star diagram with these dynasties arranged around a central point, showing their connections and relationships.

Question 3: Taking a map of the Subcontinent, draw a geographical tour that covers all or most dynasties in this chapter.

Students, this is another activity for you. On a map of India, mark the regions controlled by each dynasty mentioned in the chapter. Start from the northwest with the Hindu Shahis, move to the north with the Paramaras and Chandellas, then to the east with the Senas and Eastern Gangas, then to the south with the Cholas, Hoysalas, Kakatiyas, and Chalukyas, and finally back to the north with the Chahamanas and Ghurids. Draw lines connecting these regions to show the geographical spread of these dynasties.

Question 4: With the help of a map of India and Southeast Asia, can you calculate the approximate distance that Rajendra I's fleet of ships had to navigate to reach their objective?

Students, Rajendra Chola's naval expedition was against the Srivijaya Empire, which was located in parts of present-day Malaysia and Indonesia. The fleet would have sailed from the Chola ports on the east coast of India, probably from Nagappattinam or other ports in Tamil Nadu. They would have crossed the Bay of Bengal, passed through the Strait of Malacca, and reached the Srivijaya capital. The approximate distance would be around 3,000 to 4,000 kilometers. You can calculate this more precisely by using the scale on your map.

Question 5: Match these pairs:

(a) Eastern Gangas — (iii) Konark Sun temple (b) Chandellas — (iv) Kandariya Mahadeva temple (c) Paramaras — (v) Bhojeshwar temple (d) Hoysalas — (i) Belur (e) Cholas — (ii) Brihadesvara temple

Let me explain each match. The Eastern Gangas initiated the construction of the Konark Sun temple. The Chandellas built the Kandariya Mahadeva temple at Khajuraho. The Paramaras built the Bhojeshwar temple at Bhojpur. The Hoysalas had their capital at Belur. The Cholas built the Brihadesvara temple at Thanjavur.

Question 6: Working in groups, compare the dynasties in this chapter and in the preceding one; create a table to list the dynasties present in both, those that disappear from the preceding period, and those that appear in this chapter's period.

Students, this is a group activity. The dynasties present in both chapters include: Palas, Rashtrakutas, Western Chalukyas, and others. Dynasties that disappear include: Gurjara-Pratiharas, etc. Dynasties that appear for the first time in this period include: Ghaznavids, Ghurids, Kakatiyas, Hoysalas, Cholas, Senas, etc. Create a table with these categories and fill in the names of the dynasties.

Question 7: Using the chapter and any additional reading, prepare a short note explaining (1) why centres of learning like Nalanda were important; (2) how their destruction may have affected education and culture in India.

Students, let me answer this question. Centres of learning like Nalanda were important for several reasons. First, they were places where scholars from different parts of India and abroad came to teach and learn. Second, they had vast libraries containing manuscripts on various subjects, from religion and philosophy to science and mathematics. Third, they attracted students from far and wide, including from countries like China, Tibet, and Southeast Asia. Fourth, they contributed to the spread of knowledge and the preservation of ancient texts.

The destruction of Nalanda had several effects on education and culture in India. First, it led to a decline in Buddhist education and the spread of Buddhism in India. Second, many valuable manuscripts were destroyed, leading to a loss of knowledge. Third, scholars fled to other regions, taking their knowledge with them. Fourth, it marked the beginning of a period of instability in the north, which affected the growth of educational institutions. However, other centres of learning like Varanasi and Kashmir continued to thrive, and the tradition of learning persisted in other parts of India.

Question 8: Why do you think Mahmud of Ghazni carried out repeated raids from Afghanistan into India, while Muhammad Ghuri sought territorial expansion into India and long-term control? Write a short note on how their motives shaped the outcomes of their campaigns.

Students, this is an important question. Mahmud of Ghazni was primarily motivated by plunder. He wanted to accumulate wealth by raiding the rich temples and cities of India. He did not want to establish a permanent rule in India because his main interest was in taking back as much booty as possible to Ghazni. His repeated raids were aimed at extracting wealth, and after each raid, he returned to Afghanistan.

On the other hand, Muhammad Ghuri was motivated by territorial expansion. He wanted to establish Muslim rule in India and bring new territories under his control. Unlike Mahmud, he left behind generals like Qutb-ud-din Aibak to consolidate his gains and establish permanent control over the conquered territories.

These different motives shaped the outcomes of their campaigns. Mahmud's raids caused destruction but did not lead to lasting political changes in India. Muhammad Ghuri's campaigns, however, led to the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate, which would rule over parts of north India for centuries. Mahmud's campaigns weakened Indian kingdoms and made them vulnerable to further invasions, while Muhammad Ghuri's conquests marked the beginning of a new era in Indian history.

Now, students, we have come to the end of our lesson. Let me summarize what we have learned today.

In this chapter, we studied the 11th and 12th centuries, which were a period of major transition in Indian history. We learned about the Ghaznavid invasions by Mahmud of Ghazni, who conducted 17 raids into India, destroying temples and plundering wealth. We learned about Al-Biruni, the Persian scholar who traveled to India and wrote about Indian culture and science. We learned about Bhaskaracharya, one of India's greatest mathematicians and astronomers, who wrote Lilavati and other important works.

We then studied the various dynasties that flourished during this period. In the east, we learned about the Senas and Eastern Gangas. In the south, we learned about the powerful Cholas, who had a strong navy and conducted naval expeditions to Southeast Asia. We also learned about the Kakatiyas and Hoysalas, who built beautiful temples and promoted local languages and cultures.

We then returned to the north and learned about the Paramaras and their famous king Bhoja, who was a scholar-king. We learned about the Ghurid invasions, which were more lasting than the Ghaznavid raids. We learned about Muhammad Ghuri's conquests and the establishment of Turkish rule in north India. We learned about Prithviraja Chauhan's brave but ultimately unsuccessful resistance. We learned about Bakhtiyar Khalji's destruction of Nalanda and other Buddhist centres of learning.

Finally, we learned about the governance, trade, and cultural life of this period. We learned about the continued flourishing of trade, both internal and external, and the achievements in art, literature, science, and philosophy. We learned about thinkers like Ramanuja and Basavanna, who brought new ideas and reforms.

Students, the lesson of this period is one of resilience. Despite the invasions, destruction, and political changes, Indian culture, knowledge, and creativity endured. New dynasties rose, new ideas emerged, and India continued to contribute to the world's knowledge and culture. As Swami Vivekananda said, India stands firmer than any rock in the world, with its undying vigour and indestructible life.

Thank you for listening so patiently. I hope you have understood this chapter well. Remember to review the lesson and complete all the activities. See you in the next class!